Editing Nucleosynthesis (section)

===Explosive nucleosynthesis===

{{Main|r-process|rp-process|Supernova nucleosynthesis}}

[[Supernova nucleosynthesis]] occurs in the energetic environment in supernovae, in which the elements between silicon and nickel are synthesized in quasiequilibrium<ref name=Bodansky1968>{{cite journal |last1=Bodansky |first1=D. |last2=Clayton |first2=D. D. |last3=Fowler |first3=W. A. |date=1968 |title=Nuclear Quasi-Equilibrium during Silicon Burning |journal=[[The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series]] |volume=16 |pages=299 |bibcode=1968ApJS...16..299B |doi=10.1086/190176|url=https://tigerprints.clemson.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1311&context=physastro_pubs }}</ref> established during fast fusion that attaches by reciprocating balanced nuclear reactions to <sup>28</sup>Si. Quasiequilibrium can be thought of as ''almost equilibrium'' except for a high abundance of the <sup>28</sup>Si nuclei in the feverishly burning mix. This concept<ref name=ClaytonIsotopes7/> was the most important discovery in nucleosynthesis theory of the intermediate-mass elements since Hoyle's 1954 paper because it provided an overarching understanding of the abundant and chemically important elements between silicon (''A'' = 28) and nickel (''A'' = 60). It replaced the incorrect although much cited [[alpha process]] of the [[B2FH paper|B<sup>2</sup>FH paper]], which inadvertently obscured Hoyle's 1954 theory.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clayton |first1=D. D. |title=Hoyle's Equation |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |date=2007 |volume=318 |issue=5858 |pages=1876–1877 |doi=10.1126/science.1151167|pmid=18096793 |s2cid=118423007 }}</ref> Further nucleosynthesis processes can occur, in particular the r-process (rapid process) described by the B<sup>2</sup>FH paper and first calculated by Seeger, Fowler and Clayton,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Seeger |first1=P. A. |last2=Fowler |first2=W. A. |last3=Clayton |first3=D. D. |date=1965 |title=Nucleosynthesis of Heavy Elements by Neutron Capture |journal=[[The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series]] |volume=11 |pages=121 |bibcode=1965ApJS...11..121S |doi=10.1086/190111|url=http://tigerprints.clemson.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1307&context=physastro_pubs }}</ref> in which the most neutron-rich isotopes of elements heavier than nickel are produced by rapid absorption of free neutrons. The creation of free neutrons by [[electron capture]] during the rapid compression of the supernova core along with the assembly of some neutron-rich seed nuclei makes the r-process a ''primary process'', and one that can occur even in a star of pure H and He. This is in contrast to the B<sup>2</sup>FH designation of the process as a ''secondary process''. This promising scenario, though generally supported by supernova experts, has yet to achieve a satisfactory calculation of r-process abundances. The primary r-process has been confirmed by astronomers who had observed old stars born when galactic [[metallicity]] was still small, that nonetheless contain their complement of r-process nuclei; thereby demonstrating that the metallicity is a product of an internal process. The r-process is responsible for our natural cohort of radioactive elements, such as uranium and thorium, as well as the most neutron-rich isotopes of each heavy element.

The [[rp-process]] (rapid proton) involves the rapid absorption of free protons as well as neutrons, but its role and its existence are less certain.

Explosive nucleosynthesis occurs too rapidly for radioactive decay to decrease the number of neutrons, so that many abundant isotopes with equal and even numbers of protons and neutrons are synthesized by the silicon quasi-equilibrium process.<ref name=Bodansky1968/> During this process, the burning of oxygen and silicon fuses nuclei that themselves have equal numbers of protons and neutrons to produce nuclides which consist of whole numbers of helium nuclei, up to 15 (representing <sup>60</sup>Ni). Such multiple-alpha-particle nuclides are totally stable up to <sup>40</sup>Ca (made of 10 helium nuclei), but heavier nuclei with equal and even numbers of protons and neutrons are tightly bound but unstable. The quasi-equilibrium produces radioactive [[isobar (nuclide)|isobars]] [[titanium-44|<sup>44</sup>Ti]], <sup>48</sup>Cr, <sup>52</sup>Fe, and <sup>56</sup>Ni, which (except <sup>44</sup>Ti) are created in abundance but decay after the explosion and leave the most stable isotope of the corresponding element at the same atomic weight. The most abundant and extant isotopes of elements produced in this way are <sup>48</sup>Ti, <sup>52</sup>Cr, and <sup>56</sup>Fe. These decays are accompanied by the emission of gamma-rays (radiation from the nucleus), whose [[spectroscopic lines]] can be used to identify the isotope created by the decay. The detection of these emission lines were an important early product of gamma-ray astronomy.<ref name=Clayton1969>{{cite journal |last1=Clayton |first1=D. D. |last2=Colgate |first2=S. A. |last3=Fishman |first3=G. J. |date=1969 |title=Gamma-Ray Lines from Young Supernova Remnants |journal=[[The Astrophysical Journal]] |volume=155 |pages=75 |bibcode=1969ApJ...155...75C |doi=10.1086/149849|url=https://tigerprints.clemson.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1313&context=physastro_pubs }}</ref>

The most convincing proof of explosive nucleosynthesis in supernovae occurred in 1987 when those gamma-ray lines were detected emerging from [[supernova 1987A]]. Gamma-ray lines identifying <sup>56</sup>Co and <sup>57</sup>Co nuclei, whose half-lives limit their age to about a year, proved that their radioactive cobalt parents created them. This nuclear astronomy observation was predicted in 1969<ref name=Clayton1969/> as a way to confirm explosive nucleosynthesis of the elements, and that prediction played an important role in the planning for NASA's [[Compton Gamma Ray Observatory|Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory]].

Other proofs of explosive nucleosynthesis are found within the stardust grains that condensed within the interiors of supernovae as they expanded and cooled. Stardust grains are one component of cosmic dust. In particular, radioactive <sup>44</sup>Ti was measured to be very abundant within supernova stardust grains at the time they condensed during the supernova expansion.<ref name=Clayton2004/> This confirmed a 1975 prediction of the identification of supernova stardust (SUNOCONs), which became part of the pantheon of [[presolar grains]]. Other unusual isotopic ratios within these grains reveal many specific aspects of explosive nucleosynthesis.

Another type of explosive nucleosynthesis through the r-process was suggested in the flaring of [[Magnetar|magnetars]]. Some direct evidence for this was published in 2025. It is estimated that this kind of events has created ~1%–10% of the heavier elements in the universe.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Patel |first1=Anirudh |last2=Metzger |first2=Brian D. |last3=Cehula |first3=Jakub |last4=Burns |first4=Eric |last5=Goldberg |first5=Jared A. |last6=Thompson |first6=Todd A. |date=April 2025 |title=Direct Evidence for r-process Nucleosynthesis in Delayed MeV Emission from the SGR 1806–20 Magnetar Giant Flare |journal=The Astrophysical Journal Letters |language=en |volume=984 |issue=1 |pages=L29 |doi=10.3847/2041-8213/adc9b0 |doi-access=free |arxiv=2501.09181 |bibcode=2025ApJ...984L..29P |issn=2041-8205}}</ref>