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== Geography == [[File:Map of North Cascades National Park.png|thumb|upright=1.3|Map of the North Cascades National Park Complex]] North Cascades National Park is located in portions of [[Whatcom County, Washington|Whatcom]], [[Skagit County, Washington|Skagit]], and [[Chelan County, Washington|Chelan]] counties in the U.S. state of Washington. Bisected by Ross Lake National Recreation Area (NRA), the park consists of two districts; the northern and southern. The northern boundary of the north district is also the international border between the United States and Canada; the latter manages adjoining [[Chilliwack Lake Provincial Park|Chilliwack Lake]] and [[Skagit Valley Provincial Park]]. The entire eastern and southern boundary of the north district is bordered by Ross Lake NRA. The western side of the north district is bordered by [[Mount Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest]], within which lies the [[Mount Baker Wilderness|Mount Baker]] and [[Noisy-Diobsud Wilderness]]es, both of which border the park.<ref name=trailguide>{{cite web|title=Trail Guide|url=http://www.nps.gov/noca/planyourvisit/trailguide.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 29, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Mount Baker Wilderness|url=http://www.wilderness.net/NWPS/wildView?WID=371|publisher=University of Montana|access-date=March 29, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Noisy-Diobsud Wilderness|url=http://www.wilderness.net/NWPS/wildView?WID=410|publisher=University of Montana|access-date=March 29, 2018}}</ref> Mount Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest also borders a portion of the southern district of the park, to the southwest. Along the southwest border is [[Wenatchee National Forest]], within which lies the [[Glacier Peak Wilderness]].<ref name=trailguide/><ref>{{cite web|title=Glacier Peak Wilderness|url=http://www.wilderness.net/NWPS/wildView?WID=207|publisher=University of Montana|access-date=March 29, 2018}}</ref> The southern boundary of the park is shared with Lake Chelan NRA, and a small section of the eastern boundary is shared with the [[Okanogan–Wenatchee National Forest]].<ref name=trailguide/> The [[Lake Chelan-Sawtooth Wilderness]] lies in the Okanogan–Wenatchee National Forest along the southeastern park boundary.<ref>{{cite web|title=Lake Chelan-Sawtooth Wilderness|url=http://www.wilderness.net/NWPS/wildView?WID=306|publisher=University of Montana|access-date=March 29, 2018}}</ref> North Cascades National Park has nearly {{convert|9000|ft}} of vertical relief, with the park's highest point atop [[Goode Mountain]], and the western valleys situated at only around {{convert|400|ft|abbr=on}} above mean [[sea level]], the park has a highly varied ecosystem, including eight [[life zone]]s.<ref name=nature>{{cite web|title=Nature and Science|url=http://www.nps.gov/noca/naturescience/index.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 29, 2018}}</ref><ref name=natural>{{cite web|title=Natural Features & Ecosystems|url=http://www.nps.gov/noca/naturescience/naturalfeaturesandecosystems.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 29, 2018}}</ref> Erosion from water and glacial ice have created some of the steepest mountain ranges in the contiguous US, rising between {{convert|4000|and|6000|ft|abbr=on}} above their bases.<ref name=relief>{{cite web|title=North Cascades Geology|url=http://geomaps.wr.usgs.gov/parks/noca/nocageol1.html|publisher=U.S. Geological Survey|access-date=March 29, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130801004910/http://geomaps.wr.usgs.gov/parks/noca/nocageol1.html|archive-date=August 1, 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> The park is home to over 300 glaciers as well as 300 lakes, and contains the [[River source|headwaters]] for some streams that flow into the Skagit River, as well as the [[Stehekin River|Stehekin]] and [[Nooksack River]]s.<ref name=natural/><ref name=glaciers>{{cite web|title=Glaciers / Glacial Features|url=http://www.nps.gov/noca/naturescience/glaciers.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 29, 2018}}</ref> The ruggedness of the terrain was an obstacle to human encroachment and consequently, the park is almost entirely wilderness. === Geology === North Cascades National Park was named after the [[North Cascades]] mountains, which are a subsection of the [[Cascade Range]] that extends from northern California into British Columbia. The North Cascades are the northernmost section of the range and unlike their southern counterparts that consist of [[Tertiary]] to [[Holocene]] volcanic rocks, the North Cascades are composed primarily of [[Mesozoic]] crystalline and [[metamorphic rock]]s.<ref name=wsdnr>{{cite web|title=North Cascades|publisher=Washington State Department of Natural Resources|url=https://www.dnr.wa.gov/programs-and-services/geology/explore-popular-geology/geologic-provinces-washington/north-cascades|access-date=March 29, 2018}}</ref> Though most rocks in the park are from the more recent Mesozoic, the oldest rocks are 400 million years old, dating from the [[Devonian]].<ref name=nc>{{cite web|title=Geology of North Cascades|publisher=North Coast and Cascades Science Learning Network|url=http://www.nwparkscience.org/node/874|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180622193345/http://www.nwparkscience.org/node/874|url-status=usurped|archive-date=June 22, 2018|access-date=June 22, 2018}}</ref> A complex assemblage of various rock formations have repeatedly been eroded, reburied, subjected to fracturing and heat, creating a geological puzzle that is one of the most complicated and least understood geological records in North America. These forces are ongoing and the region continues to see uplift and faulting.<ref name=nc/> Evidence from the fossils and magnetism found in the rocks indicates that the [[terrane]]s composing the North Cascades drifted thousands of miles north until they impacted the [[North American Plate]] 90 million years ago.<ref name=nc/> The collision between the rocks caused fracturing and folding as well as uplift and the terranes were further fractured into north or south trending faults.<ref name=nc/> The uplifted rocks mostly eroded away; 40 million years ago the heavier [[basalt]]ic rocks of the ocean floor started to push the lighter [[granite|granitic]] rocks that are the core of the mountains upward, a process that continues.<ref name=nc/><ref name=geologic>{{cite web|title=Geologic Formations|publisher=National Park Service|url=http://www.nps.gov/noca/naturescience/geologicformations.htm|access-date=March 30, 2018}}</ref> Subjected to intense heat, rocks deep underground near the collision zone became recrystallized into granitic rocks, which comprise the backbone of the highest peaks.<ref name=nc/> Continued uplift and erosion and finally the action of glacial ice on the landscape during the [[Holocene]] exposed the rocks visible today.<ref name=nc/><ref name=wsdnr2>{{cite web|title=Glaciation and Erosion|work=North Cascades|publisher=Washington State Department of Natural Resources|url=https://www.dnr.wa.gov/programs-and-services/geology/explore-popular-geology/geologic-provinces-washington/north-cascades#glaciation-and-erosion.1|access-date=June 22, 2018}}</ref> Much harder and more durable than the younger volcanic rocks of the southern Cascades, the North Cascades are consequently more rugged, with steep terrain being the norm due to heavy erosion from water and ice.<ref name=tabor>{{cite book|last=Tabor|first=Rowland|author2=Ralph Haugerud|title=Geology of the North Cascades: A Mountain Mosaic|publisher=Mountaineers Books|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=56UH5XauGSsC&q=Geology%20of%20the%20North%20Cascades%3A%20A%20Mountain%20Mosaic&pg=PA7|pages=7–8|isbn=978-0898866230|date=May 14, 1999|access-date=March 30, 2018}}</ref> Continued rising in conjunction with erosion from water and ice has created deep valleys and significant vertical relief that is comparable to much taller mountain ranges.<ref name=tabor/> === Mountains === {{main|North Cascades}} [[File:Mount Degenhardt 26001.JPG|thumb|View from the south of Mount Terror (left skyline), Inspiration Peak (center) and McMillan Spires (right center), major summits in the southern portion of the Picket Range|alt=A range of sharp mountain peaks. The lower reaches have snow on them. In the foreground, a wooded slope descends from left to right.]] The tallest mountain in North Cascades National Park is [[Goode Mountain]] at {{convert|9220|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref name=student>{{cite web|title=North Cascades Student Guide|url=http://www.nps.gov/noca/forkids/upload/Student%20Brochure%20Final.pdf|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 30, 2018}}</ref> It lies in a remote backcountry region of the southern section of the park.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Smoot|first1=Jeff|title=Climbing Washington's Mountains|date=January 1, 2002|publisher=FalconGuides|isbn=978-0762710867|page=89}}</ref> Nearby are several other peaks that exceed {{convert|9000|ft|abbr=on}}, including [[Buckner Mountain]] ({{convert|9114|ft|abbr=on}})<ref>{{cite book|last1=Smoot|first1=Jeff|title=Climbing Washington's Mountains|date=January 1, 2002|publisher=FalconGuides|isbn=978-0762710867|page=86}}</ref> and [[Mount Logan (Washington)|Mount Logan]] ({{convert|9087|ft|abbr=on}}).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Smoot|first1=Jeff|title=Climbing Washington's Mountains|date=January 1, 2002|publisher=FalconGuides|isbn=978-0762710867|pages=93–97}}</ref> At about {{convert|9000|ft|abbr=on}}, about {{convert|5|mi}} northeast of Goode Mountain, is [[Black Peak (Washington)|Black Peak]] ({{convert|8970|ft|abbr=on}}). Other prominent peaks in the southern section of the park include [[Boston Peak]] ({{convert|8894|ft|abbr=on}}),<ref>{{cite book|last1=Beckey|first1=Fred|title=Cascade Alpine Guide: Climbing and High Routes: Stevens Pass to Rainy Pass|date=January 15, 2003|publisher=The Mountaineers Books|isbn=978-0898868388|page=331|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-ukAUElJXPIC&pg=PA331}}</ref> [[Eldorado Peak]] ({{convert|8868|ft|abbr=on}})<ref>{{cite gnis|1519242|Eldorado Peak}}</ref> and [[Forbidden Peak]] ({{convert|8815|ft|abbr=on}}).<ref>{{cite gnis|1519683|Forbidden Peak}}</ref> The northern region of the park contains the [[Picket Range]], a subrange of the [[Skagit Range]], which is in turn a subrange of the North Cascades.<ref name=beckey>{{cite book|last1=Beckey|first1=Fred|title=Cascade Alpine Guide; Rainy Pass to Fraser River|date=June 1, 2008|publisher=The Mountaineers Books|isbn=978-1594854309|pages=96–100|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5S0EVRXtK6YC&pg=PA96}}</ref> The Picket Range has numerous spires with ominous names such as [[Mount Fury]], [[Mount Challenger (Washington)|Mount Challenger]], [[Poltergeist Pinnacle]], [[Mount Terror (Washington)|Mount Terror]], [[Ghost Peak]] and [[Phantom Peak]], all of which exceed {{convert|8000|ft|abbr=on}}. The Picket Range is only {{convert|6|mi|abbr=on}} long yet contains 21 peaks over {{convert|7500|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref name=beckey/> North of the Picket Range and near the border with Canada lie [[Mount Redoubt (Washington)|Mount Redoubt]] ({{convert|8969|ft|abbr=on}}), [[Mount Spickard]] ({{convert|8979|ft|abbr=on}}) and the spires of the [[Mox Peaks]] ({{convert|8630|ft|abbr=on}}).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Goldman|first1=Peggy|title=Washington's Highest Mountains: Basic Alpine and Glacier Routes|date=March 30, 2004|publisher=Wilderness Press|isbn=978-0899972909|pages=43–49}}</ref> Isolated and dominating the northwestern reaches of the park lies the oft photographed [[Mount Shuksan]] ({{convert|9131|ft|abbr=on}}), which towers more than {{convert|8400|ft|abbr=on}} above [[Baker Lake (Washington)|Baker Lake]] only {{convert|6|mi|abbr=on}} to the south.<ref name=rivers>{{cite web|title=Rivers and streams|url=http://www.nps.gov/noca/naturescience/rivers.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 30, 2018}}</ref> === Water features === More than 500 lakes and ponds are located within North Cascades National Park.<ref>{{cite web|title=Lakes and ponds|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/learn/nature/lakesandponds.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=April 5, 2018}}</ref> Many of these are devoid of fish, not uncommon in steep terrain where fish may not be able to access high altitude waterways. Around 240 of these lakes exist in the higher elevations and stocking of some of these lakes with fish has been ongoing since the late 19th century.<ref>{{cite web|title=Natural Resource Issues|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/learn/nature/natural-resource-issues.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 26, 2018|date=January 19, 2018}}</ref> Fishing in these lakes, which, without fish stocking, do not have native fish, is part of the area's economy and tourism.<ref name="hreport11368">{{cite web|last=House Committee on Natural Resources|title=House Report 113-68|url=http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CRPT-113hrpt68/pdf/CRPT-113hrpt68.pdf|publisher=Government Printing Office|access-date=July 18, 2013}}</ref> In 2008 an Environmental Impact Statement was produced that examined whether these lakes should continue to be stocked, and if so, what the impact would be on native species such as salamanders and other aquatic life.<ref name="eis">{{cite web|title=Mountain Lakes Fishery Management Plan / Environmental Impact Statement (2008)|url=https://parkplanning.nps.gov/projectHome.cfm?projectID=10007|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 26, 2018}}</ref> The North Cascades National Park Service Complex Fish Stocking Act, signed in 2014, directs the NPS to allow stocking of non-reproducing fish in no more than 42 lakes, making it the only national park to continue to stock non-native fish in park lakes.<ref name="1158sum">{{cite web|title=H.R. 1158 - Summary|url=http://beta.congress.gov/bill/113th-congress/house-bill/1158|publisher=United States Congress|access-date=June 13, 2013}}</ref><ref name="nptraveler">{{cite news|last=Repanshek|first=Kurt|date=June 3, 2009|title=House Approves Measure to Direct North Cascades National Park to Stock Barren Lakes. What Do You Think?|newspaper=National Parks Traveler|url=http://www.nationalparkstraveler.com/2009/06/house-approves-measure-direct-north-cascades-national-park-stock-barren-lakes-what-do-you-th|access-date=July 18, 2013}}</ref> The prior decision not to continue to stock the lakes with fish was part of a larger debate about what "natural" means in reference to national parks.<ref name="seattletimes2009">{{cite news|last=Le|first=Phuong|date=April 13, 2009|title=Fish stocking ban looms at Wash. national park|newspaper=Seattle Times|url=http://seattletimes.com/html/nationworld/2009029873_apfishstockingcascades.html|access-date=July 18, 2013}}</ref> [[File:Thunder Creek.jpg|thumb|left|Thunder Creek is known for its milky appearance from suspended rock particles called glacial flour.|alt=A medium-sized river flows through a wooded landscape. The water is slightly milky in appearance.]] Hundreds of creeks and streams and several rivers originate within the park. The streams at higher elevation are often directly supplied by [[meltwater]] from glaciers, and they carry finely ground rock particles commonly referred to as [[glacial flour]].<ref name="river">{{cite web|title=Rivers and Streams|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/learn/nature/rivers.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 26, 2018}}</ref> Turning the water a turquoise hue at times, this finely ground powder remains suspended in lakes the creeks flow into, also causing some of them to appear turquoise. [[Thunder Creek (Washington)|Thunder Creek]] is particularly well known for this attribute, as it is supplied melt water from dozens of glaciers and transports the suspended particles into [[Diablo Lake]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Thunder Creek and Park Creek Trails|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/planyourvisit/thunder-creek-trail.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 30, 2018}}</ref> The Skagit River divides the park into the north and south districts; it lies within the Ross Lake NRA and outside of the national park boundaries, but some of the creeks and streams that supply it originate within the national park; the [[Baker River (Washington)|Baker River]] is the largest of these tributaries.<ref name="river"/> The Skagit River is the largest river that flows into Puget Sound to the west, and the dams located in Ross Lake National Recreation Area and impounding other lakes adjacent to the park supply nearly 90 percent of the electricity used in Seattle.<ref>{{cite web|title=How Our Electricity is Generated|url=http://www.seattle.gov/light/FuelMix/|publisher=Seattle City Light|access-date=March 26, 2018}}</ref> Other important rivers that originate in the park include the [[Vedder River|Chilliwack]], Nooksack and the Stehekin rivers.<ref name="river"/> {{clear}} === Glaciers === [[File:Eldorado Peak view east.jpeg|thumb|View of three glaciers from Eldorado Peak: Inspiration, Forbidden, and Quien Sabe|alt=A view looking down on a range of dark mountains. The valley to the left contains a light-colored glacier. There is a small lake at the bottom of the picture.]] With approximately 312 glaciers, North Cascades National Park has the most glaciers of any US park outside Alaska, and a third of all the glaciers in the lower 48 states.<ref name=riedel1>{{cite web|last=Riedel|first=Jon|author2=Mike Larrabee|author3=Sharon Brady|author4=Niki Bowerman|author5=Rob Burrows |author6=Steve Dorsch|author7=Joanie Lawrence|author8=Jeannie Wenger|title=Glacier Monitoring Program|publisher=National Park Service|url=http://www.nps.gov/noca/naturescience/glacial-mass-balance1.htm|access-date=March 29, 2018}}</ref> Counting a few glaciers in the adjoining National Recreation Areas, the North Cascades National Park Complex glaciers covered an expanse totaling {{convert|27000|acre|sqkm}} as of 2009.<ref name=riedel2>{{cite web|last=Riedel|first=Jon|author2=Michael Larrabee|title=North Cascades National Park Complex Glacier Mass Balance Monitoring Annual Report, Water Year 2009|work=Natural Resource Technical Report NPS/NCCN/NRTR–2011/483|publisher=National Park Service|url=http://www.nps.gov/noca/naturescience/upload/134_NCCN_NOCA_GlacierAnnualReport2009_20110825.pdf|date=August 2011|access-date=March 30, 2018}}</ref> [[Boston Glacier]], on the north slope of Boston Peak, is the largest glacier in the park, measured in 1971 to have an area of {{convert|1730|acre|sqkm}}.<ref name=student/> Other glaciers that were measured in 1971 to be larger than {{Convert|2|km2}} include [[East Nooksack Glacier|East Nooksack]] and [[Sulphide Glacier]]s on [[Mount Shuksan]], [[McAllister Glacier|McAllister]] and [[Inspiration Glacier]]s on Eldorado Peak, [[Redoubt Glacier]] on [[Mount Redoubt (Washington)|Mount Redoubt]], [[Neve Glacier]] on [[Snowfield Peak]], and [[Challenger Glacier (Washington)|Challenger Glacier]] on Mount Challenger.<ref name=post>{{cite web|last=Post|first=Austin|author2=Don Richardson|author3=Wendell V. Tangborn|author4=F. L. Rosselot|title=Inventory of Glaciers in the North Cascades, Washington|publisher=U.S. Geological Survey|url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0705a/report.pdf|access-date=June 22, 2018}}</ref> [[File:Lowercurtis.jpg|thumb|left|Lower Curtis Glacier in 2003 compared to 1985 extent demarcated by red line demonstrates the retreat of this glacier.|alt=A dark mountain range showing the end of a glacier. There is a timestamp in orange: "08.07.2003". A red line well below the end of the glacier is marked "1985".]] The dense concentration and relative ease of access to the North Cascade glaciers brought about some of the earliest series of scientific studies regarding glaciology in the United States. Beginning in 1955, the [[University of Washington]] sponsored [[Richard C. Hubley]] to undertake annual aerial photography expeditions designed to capture images of the glaciers and to show any alterations that might be occurring.<ref name=post2>{{cite book|last1=Post|first1=Austin|author2=Edward R. LaChapelle|title=Glacier Ice|date=March 1, 2000|publisher=University of Washington Press|isbn=978-0802083753|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BofiWpPh328C&q=Richard+C.+Hubley&pg=PR12|access-date=March 30, 2018}}</ref> In 1960, [[Austin Post (photographer)|Austin Post]] expanded the aerial coverage to include other regions and he also used ground-based imagery to augment the research. In 1971, based on the photographs and other data collected since 1955, Post and others wrote a report that documented the number and scale of glaciers in the North Cascades.<ref name=post/> At the time of Austin Post's inventory, their study concluded that some North Cascades glaciers had experienced a period of minor growth or equilibrium in the mid-20th century, after undergoing decades of retreat. The study concluded that annual glacial melt due to seasonal variations has a significant influence on river levels, accounting for about 30 percent of the late summer water flow, which directly impacted the supported ecosystems such as salmon fisheries.<ref name=post/> The National Park Service, United States Geological Survey (USGS) and [[glaciologist]]s such as [[Mauri S. Pelto]], who has led the North Cascades Glacier Climate Project since 1984, have continued research on North Cascade glaciers.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Pelto|first=Mauri|title=Vanishing Glaciers|journal=Washington Trails|pages=1–4|date=September 2007|url=http://www.wta.org/magazine/1240.pdf|access-date=March 30, 2018}}</ref> Since 1993, the National Park Service has conducted rigorous studies on four park glaciers: [[Noisy Creek Glacier|Noisy Creek]], [[Silver Glacier|Silver]], [[North Klawatti Glacier|North Klawatti]] and [[Sandalee Glacier]]s.<ref>{{cite web|title=Glaciers Selected for Monitoring|publisher=National Park Service|url=http://www.nps.gov/noca/naturescience/glacial-mass-balance2.htm|access-date=March 30, 2018}}</ref> The National Park Service research indicated that these four glaciers experienced rapid decrease in volumes between 1993 and 2011.<ref>{{cite web|title=Recent Trends in Glacial Volume|publisher=National Park Service|url=http://www.nps.gov/noca/naturescience/glacial-mass-balance6.htm|access-date=March 28, 2018}}</ref> In 1998, a National Park Service and [[Portland State University]] aerial photographic inventory showed a 13 percent loss in park-wide glacial volume since Austin Post's inventory in 1971.<ref name=trends>{{cite web|title=Long Term Trends|publisher=National Park Service|url=http://www.nps.gov/noca/naturescience/glacial-mass-balance7.htm|access-date=March 30, 2018}}</ref> The NPS stated that in the last 150 years since the end of the [[Little Ice Age]], a period of several centuries in which the earth experienced a cooling phase, glacial ice volumes in the North Cascades have been reduced by 40 percent.<ref name=trends/> This loss of glacial ice has contributed to decreased melt in the summer. In a paper published in 2016, it was reported that since 1959 the Skagit River watershed has seen a 25 percent reduction in the summertime streamflow.<ref>{{cite web|title=Glacier Monitoring Program|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/learn/nature/glacial-mass-balance1.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=June 27, 2018|date=January 19, 2018}}</ref> === Map === Geographical features in the area can be found in this clickable map:{{clear}}{{NCascades ImageMap}}{{clear}}
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