Editing Nonviolence (section)

=====Ancient Vedic texts=====
Ahimsa as an ethical concept evolved in [[Vedas|Vedic texts]].<ref name=chapple1990/><ref>Walli, Koshelya: ''The Conception of Ahimsa in Indian Thought'', Varanasi 1974, p. 113–145.</ref> The oldest scripts, along with discussing ritual animal sacrifices, indirectly mention Ahimsa, but do not emphasise it. Over time, the Hindu scripts revise ritual practices and the concept of Ahimsa is increasingly refined and emphasised, ultimately Ahimsa becomes the highest virtue by the late Vedic era (about 500 BCE). For example, hymn 10.22.25 in the Rig Veda uses the words [[Satya]] (truthfulness) and Ahimsa in a prayer to deity Indra;<ref>Sanskrit: अस्मे ता त इन्द्र सन्तु '''सत्याहिंस'''न्तीरुपस्पृशः । विद्याम यासां भुजो धेनूनां न वज्रिवः ॥१३॥ [http://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१०.२२ Rigveda 10.22] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924063809/https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6:_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6.%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%A8 |date=2020-09-24 }} Wikisource;<br />English: Unto Tähtinen (1964), Non-violence as an Ethical Principle, Turun Yliopisto, Finland, PhD Thesis, pages 23–25; {{oclc|4288274}};<br />For other occurrence of Ahimsa in Rigveda, see [http://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_५.६४ Rigveda 5.64.3] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924061032/https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6:_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%AB.%E0%A5%AC%E0%A5%AA |date=2020-09-24 }}, [http://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१.१४१ Rigveda 1.141.5] ;</ref> later, the [[Yajurveda|Yajur Veda]] dated to be between 1000 BCE and 600 BCE, states, "may all beings look at me with a friendly eye, may I do likewise, and may we look at each other with the eyes of a friend".<ref name=chapple1990/><ref>[http://ebooks.gutenberg.us/himalayanacademy/sacredhinduliterature/lws/lws_ch-39.html To do no harm] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017133837/http://ebooks.gutenberg.us/himalayanacademy/sacredhinduliterature/lws/lws_ch-39.html |date=2013-10-17 }} Project Gutenberg, see translation for Yajurveda 36.18 VE;<br />For other occurrences of Ahimsa in Vedic literature, see [https://archive.org/stream/vedicconcordance00bloouoft#page/150/mode/2up A Vedic Concordance] [[Maurice Bloomfield]], Harvard University Press, page 151</ref>

The term ''Ahimsa'' appears in the text [[Taittiriya Shakha]] of the [[Yajurveda]] (TS 5.2.8.7), where it refers to non-injury to the sacrificer himself.<ref>Tähtinen p. 2.</ref> It occurs several times in the ''[[Shatapatha Brahmana]]'' in the sense of "non-injury".<ref>Shatapatha Brahmana 2.3.4.30; 2.5.1.14; 6.3.1.26; 6.3.1.39.</ref> The Ahimsa doctrine is a late Vedic era development in Brahmanical culture.<ref name="houben 1999">Henk M. Bodewitz in Jan E. M. Houben, K. R. van Kooij, ed., ''Violence denied: violence, non-violence and the rationalisation of violence in "South Asian" cultural history.'' BRILL, 1999 page 30.</ref> The earliest reference to the idea of non-violence to animals ("pashu-Ahimsa"), apparently in a moral sense, is in the Kapisthala Katha Samhita of the Yajurveda (KapS 31.11), which may have been written in about the 8th century BCE.<ref>Tähtinen pp. 2–3.</ref>

Bowker states the word appears but is uncommon in the principal Upanishads.<ref>John Bowker, ''Problems of suffering in religions of the world.'' Cambridge University Press, 1975, page 233.</ref> Kaneda gives examples of the word ''Ahimsa'' in these Upanishads.<ref name=kaneda2008>Kaneda, T. (2008). Shanti, peacefulness of mind. C. Eppert & H. Wang (Eds.), Cross cultural studies in curriculum: Eastern thought, educational insights, pages 171–192, {{ISBN|978-0-8058-5673-6}}, Taylor & Francis</ref> Other scholars<ref name=arapura/><ref>Izawa, A. (2008). Empathy for Pain in Vedic Ritual. Journal of the International College for Advanced Buddhist Studies, 12, 78</ref> suggest ''Ahimsa'' as an ethical concept that started evolving in the Vedas, becoming an increasingly central concept in Upanishads.

The [[Chāndogya Upaniṣad]], dated to the 8th or 7th century BCE, one of the oldest [[Upanishads]], has the earliest evidence for the [[Vedas|Vedic era]] use of the word ''Ahimsa'' in the sense familiar in Hinduism (a code of conduct). It bars violence against "all creatures" (''sarvabhuta'') and the practitioner of Ahimsa is said to escape from the cycle of [[Reincarnation|rebirths]] (CU 8.15.1).<ref>Tähtinen pp. 2–5; English translation: Schmidt p. 631.</ref> Some scholars state that this 8th or 7th-century BCE mention may have been an influence of Jainism on Vedic Hinduism.<ref>M.K Sridhar and Puruṣottama Bilimoria (2007), ''Indian Ethics: Classical traditions and contemporary challenges,'' Editors: Puruṣottama Bilimoria, Joseph Prabhu, Renuka M. Sharma, Ashgate Publishing, {{ISBN|978-0-7546-3301-3}}, page 315</ref> Others scholar state that this relationship is speculative, and though Jainism is an ancient tradition the oldest traceable texts of Jainism tradition are from many centuries after the Vedic era ended.<ref>{{cite book|first=Jeffery D.|last=Long|title=Jainism: An Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JmRlAgAAQBAJ|year=2009|publisher=I. B. Tauris|isbn=978-1-84511-625-5|pages=31–33}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Paul|last=Dundas|title=The Jains|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ|year=2002|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0415266055|pages=22–24, 73–83}}</ref>

Chāndogya Upaniṣad also names Ahimsa, along with Satyavacanam (truthfulness), Arjavam (sincerity), [[Dāna|Danam]] (charity), [[Tapas (Indian religions)|Tapo]] (penance/meditation), as one of five essential virtues (CU 3.17.4).<ref name=arapura/><ref>Ravindra Kumar (2008), Non-violence and Its Philosophy, {{ISBN|978-81-7933-159-0}}, see page 11–14</ref>

The Sandilya [[Upanishad]] lists ten forbearances: '''Ahimsa''', Satya, Asteya, Brahmacharya, Daya, Arjava, Kshama, Dhriti, Mitahara and Saucha.<ref>{{citation|last1=Swami|first1=P. |year=2000|title=Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Upaniṣads: SZ |volume=3|publisher=Sarup & Sons|pages=630–631}}</ref><ref>{{citation|last1=Ballantyne|first1=J. R. |last2=Yogīndra|first2=S. |year=1850|title=A Lecture on the Vedánta: Embracing the Text of the Vedánta-sára|publisher=Presbyterian mission press}}</ref> According to Kaneda,<ref name=kaneda2008/> the term Ahimsa is an important spiritual doctrine shared by Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. It literally means 'non-injury' and 'non-killing'. It implies the total avoidance of harming of any kind of living creatures not only by deeds, but also by words and in thoughts.