Editing Mongols (section)

=== Post-Qing era ===
[[File:A Mongolian lady sits for her portrait before a Chinese photographer (cropped).png|thumb|A Mongol woman seated for a [[portraiture]], 1921]]
With the independence of Outer Mongolia, the Mongolian army controlled Khalkha and Khovd regions (modern day [[Uvs Province|Uvs]], [[Khovd Province|Khovd]], and [[Bayan-Ölgii Province|Bayan-Ölgii provinces]]), but Northern [[Xinjiang]] (the Altai and Ili regions of the Qing empire), [[Upper Mongolia]], [[Barga Mongols|Barga]] and [[Inner Mongolia]] came under control of the newly formed [[Republic of China (1912–49)|Republic of China]]. On February 2, 1913, the [[Mongolia (1911–24)|Bogd Khanate of Mongolia]] sent Mongolian cavalries to "liberate" Inner Mongolia from China. Russia refused to sell weapons to the Bogd Khanate, and the Russian czar, [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]], referred to it as "Mongolian imperialism". Additionally, the [[United Kingdom]] urged Russia to abolish Mongolian independence as it was concerned that "if Mongolians gain independence, then Central Asians will revolt". 10,000 Khalkha and Inner Mongolian cavalries (about 3,500 Inner Mongols) defeated 70,000 Chinese soldiers and controlled almost all of Inner Mongolia; however, the Mongolian army retreated due to lack of weapons in 1914. 400 Mongol soldiers and 3,795 Chinese soldiers died in this war. The Khalkhas, Khovd Oirats, Buryats, Dzungarian Oirats, [[Upper Mongols]], [[Barga Mongols]], most Inner Mongolian and some Tuvan leaders sent statements to support Bogd Khan's call of [[Pan-Mongolism|Mongolian reunification]]. In reality however, most of them were too prudent or irresolute to attempt joining the Bogd Khan regime.<ref>Proceedings of the Fifth East Asian Altaistic Conference, December 26, 1979 – January 2, 1980, Taipei, China, p144</ref> Russia encouraged Mongolia to become an autonomous region of China in 1914. Mongolia lost [[Barga Mongols|Barga]], Dzungaria, [[Tuva]], Upper Mongolia and Inner Mongolia in the [[Treaty of Kyakhta (1915)|1915 Treaty of Kyakhta]].

In October 1919, the Republic of China occupied Mongolia after the suspicious deaths of Mongolian patriotic nobles. On 3 February 1921 the [[White movement|White Russian]] army—led by [[Baron Ungern]] and mainly consisting of Mongolian volunteer cavalries, and Buryat and Tatar [[cossacks]]—liberated [[Ulaanbaatar]]. Baron Ungern's purpose was to find allies to defeat the [[Soviet Union]]. The Statement of Reunification of Mongolia was adopted by Mongolian revolutionaries in 1921. The Soviet, however, considered Mongolia to be Chinese territory in 1924 during a secret meeting with the Republic of China. However, the Soviets officially recognized Mongolian independence in 1945 but carried out various policies (political, economic and cultural) against Mongolia until its fall in 1991 to prevent Pan-Mongolism and other [[List of active separatist movements in Asia#China|irredentist]] [[List of active separatist movements in Europe#Russia|movements]].

On 10 April 1932, Mongolians [[1932 armed uprising in Mongolia|revolted]] against the government's new policy and Soviets. The government and Soviet soldiers defeated the rebels in October.

The Buryats started to migrate to Mongolia in the 1900s due to Russian oppression. [[Joseph Stalin]]'s regime stopped the migration in 1930 and started a campaign of ethnic cleansing against newcomers and Mongolians. During the [[Stalinist repressions in Mongolia]], almost all adult Buryat men and 22,000–33,000 Mongols (3–5% of the total population; common citizens, monks, Pan-Mongolists, nationalists, patriots, hundreds of military officers, nobles, intellectuals and elite people) were shot dead under Soviet orders.<ref>[http://www.olloo.mn/modules.php?name=News&file=print&sid=113303 Богд хааны жолооч хилс хэрэгт хэлмэгдсэн нь] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203021133/http://www.olloo.mn/modules.php?name=News&file=print&sid=113303 |date=2013-12-03 }} '''(Mongolian)'''</ref><ref name="Death Tolls">{{cite web| url = http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat5.htm#Mong2| title = Twentieth Century Atlas – Death Tolls| access-date = 2013-12-01| archive-date = 2019-10-22| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191022115708/http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat5.htm#Mong2| url-status = live}}</ref> Some authors also offer much higher estimates, up to 100,000 victims.<ref name="Death Tolls"/> Around the late 1930s the [[Mongolian People's Republic]] had an overall population of about 700,000 to 900,000 people. By 1939, Soviet said "We repressed too many people, the population of Mongolia is only hundred thousands". The proportion of victims in relation to the population of the country is much higher than the corresponding figures of the [[Great Purge]] in the Soviet Union.

[[File:Khalkhin Gol George Zhukov and Khorloogiin Choibalsan 1939.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|[[Khorloogiin Choibalsan]], leader of the [[Mongolian People's Republic]] (left), and [[Georgy Zhukov]] consult during the [[Battle of Khalkhin Gol]] against Japanese troops, 1939]]
The [[Manchukuo]] (1932–1945), puppet state of the [[Empire of Japan]] (1868–1947) invaded [[Barga Mongols|Barga]] and some part of Inner Mongolia with Japanese help. The Mongolian army advanced to the [[Great Wall of China]] during the [[Soviet–Japanese War (1945)|Soviet–Japanese War of 1945]] (Mongolian name: ''Liberation War of 1945''). Japan forced Inner Mongolian and Barga people to fight against Mongolians but they surrendered to Mongolians and started to fight against their Japanese and Manchu allies. Marshal [[Khorloogiin Choibalsan]] called Inner Mongolians and Xinjiang Oirats to migrate to Mongolia during the war but the [[Soviet Army]] blocked Inner Mongolian migrants' way. It was a part of a Pan-Mongolian plan and few Oirats and Inner Mongols ([[Huuchid]]s, Bargas, [[Tümed]]s, [[Üzemchin Mongols|about 800 Uzemchins]]) [[Demographics of Mongolia#Ethnic groups of Mongolia|arrived]]. Inner Mongolian leaders carried out active policy to merge Inner Mongolia with Mongolia since 1911. They founded the [[Inner Mongolian Army]] in 1929 but the Inner Mongolian Army disbanded after ending World War II. The Japanese Empire supported Pan-Mongolism since the 1910s but there have never been active relations between Mongolia and Imperial Japan due to Russian resistance. The nominally independent Inner Mongolian [[Mengjiang]] state (1936–1945) was established with support of Japan in 1936; also, some Buryat and Inner Mongol nobles founded a Pan-Mongolist government with the support of Japan in 1919.

[[File:Monumento ruso en Ulan Bator, Mongolia.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|World War II [[Zaisan Memorial]], Ulaan Baatar, from the [[People's Republic of Mongolia]] era.]]

The Inner Mongols established the short-lived Republic of Inner Mongolia in 1945.

Another part of Choibalsan's plan was to merge Inner Mongolia and Dzungaria with Mongolia. By 1945, Chinese communist leader [[Mao Zedong]] requested the Soviets to stop Pan-Mongolism because China lost its control over Inner Mongolia and without Inner Mongolian support the Communists were unable to defeat Japan and [[Kuomintang]].{{citation needed|date=March 2024}}

Mongolia and Soviets supported the [[Uyghurs|Uyghur]] and [[Kazakhs|Kazakh]] [[Second East Turkestan Republic|separatist movement]] during the 1930s and 1940s. By 1945, the Soviets refused to support them after its alliance with the [[Chinese Communist Party]] and Mongolia interrupted its relations with the separatists under pressure. Xinjiang Oirat militant groups operated together the Turkic peoples but the Oirats did not have the leading role due to their small population. [[Basmachi movement|Basmachi]]s or Turkic and [[Tajiks|Tajik]] militants fought to liberate [[Soviet Central Asia]] until 1942.{{citation needed|date=March 2024}}

On February 2, 1913, the [[Treaty of friendship and alliance between the Government of Mongolia and Tibet]] was signed. Mongolian agents and Bogd Khan disrupted Soviet secret operations in [[Tibet (1912-51)|Tibet]] to change its regime in the 1920s.{{citation needed|date=March 2024}}

On October 27, 1961, the United Nations recognized Mongolian independence and granted the nation full membership in the organization.

The powerful states of Russia and China have committed many abuses against Mongols in their homeland, including war crimes and crimes against humanity, sometimes characterized as [[cultural genocide]], with targets among the Mongol language, culture, tradition, history, religion, and ethnic identity. [[Peter the Great]] said: "The headwaters of the [[Yenisei River]] must be Russian land".<ref>L.Jamsran, Mongol states in Russia, 1995</ref> The Russian Empire sent the Kalmyks and Buryats to war to reduce the populations ([[World War I]] and other wars). During the 20th century, Soviet scientists attempted to convince the Kalmyks and Buryats that they're not Mongols during (demongolization policy). 35,000 Buryats were killed during a rebellion in 1927, and around one-third of the Buryat population in Russia died in the 1900s–1950s.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.pandia.ru/text/77/152/9539.php| title = Войны ХХ века и их жертвы /тысяч человек/}}{{Dead link|date=May 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} '''(Russian)'''</ref><ref>[http://horidoimergen.blog.gogo.mn/read/entry128563 Буриад-Монголын үндэстний хөдөлгөөн, тулгамдсан асуудлууд] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203121332/http://horidoimergen.blog.gogo.mn/read/entry128563 |date=2013-12-03 }} '''(Mongolian)'''</ref> 10,000 Buryats of the Buryat-Mongol Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic were massacred by Stalin's order in the 1930s.<ref>[http://baigalmirny.ru/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1336&Itemid=96 История (до и начало XX века)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141227122719/http://baigalmirny.ru/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1336&Itemid=96 |date=2014-12-27 }} '''(Russian)'''</ref> In 1919 the Buryats established a small [[theocratic]] Balagad state in [[Kizhinginsky District]] of Russia and it fell in 1926. In 1958, the name "Mongol" was removed from the name of the Buryat-Mongol Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic.

On 22 January 1922 Mongolia proposed to migrate the Kalmyks during the Kalmykian Famine but bolshevik Russia refused. 71,000–72,000 (93,000?; around half of the population) Kalmyks died during the [[Russian famine of 1921–22]].<ref name="Munkhbayar">{{cite web| url = http://sonin.mn/blog/Munkhbayar/21142| title = XX зууны 20, 30-аад онд халимагуудын 98 хувь аймшигт өлсгөлөнд автсан| access-date = 2013-11-24| archive-date = 2013-10-31| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131031003919/http://sonin.mn/blog/Munkhbayar/21142| url-status = dead}} '''(Mongolian)'''</ref> The Kalmyks revolted against the Soviet Union in 1926, 1930 and 1942–1943. In 1913, [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]], tsar of Russia, said: "We need to prevent from Volg [[Tatars]]. But the Kalmyks are more dangerous than them because they are the Mongols so send them to war to reduce the population".<ref name="ulstor.com">[http://www.ulstor.com/2010/10/blog-post_1768.html Халимагийн эмгэнэлт түүхээс] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141227071634/http://www.ulstor.com/2010/10/blog-post_1768.html |date=2014-12-27 }} '''(Mongolian)'''</ref> On 23 April 1923 [[Joseph Stalin]], communist leader of Russia, said: "We are carrying out wrong policy on the Kalmyks who related to the Mongols. Our policy is too peaceful".<ref name="ulstor.com"/> In March 1927, Soviet deported 20,000 Kalmyks to Siberia, the [[tundra]] and [[Karelia]].The Kalmyks founded the sovereign [[List of Mongol states#Modern states|Republic of Oirat-Kalmyk]] on 22 March 1930.<ref name="ulstor.com"/> The Oirats' state had a small army and 200 Kalmyk soldiers defeated 1,700 Soviet soldiers in Durvud province of Kalmykia but the Oirats' state was destroyed by the Soviet Army in 1930. Kalmykian [[nationalists]] and Pan-Mongolists attempted to migrate Kalmyks to Mongolia in the 1920s. Mongolia suggested to migrate the Soviet Union's Mongols to Mongolia in the 1920s but Russia refused the suggestion.

Stalin [[Kalmyk deportations of 1943|deported]] all Kalmyks to [[Siberia]] in 1943 and around half of the (97,000–98,000) Kalmyks deported to Siberia died before being allowed to return home in 1957.<ref>{{cite news| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/4580467.stm| title = Regions and territories: Kalmykia| date = 29 November 2011| access-date = 24 November 2013| archive-date = 14 October 2018| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181014073605/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/country_profiles/4580467.stm| url-status = live}}</ref> The government of the Soviet Union forbade teaching the [[Kalmyk language]] during the deportation. The Kalmyks' main purpose was to migrate to Mongolia and many Kalmyks joined the German Army. Marshal [[Khorloogiin Choibalsan]] attempted to migrate the deportees to Mongolia and he met with them in Siberia during his visit to Russia. Under the Law of the Russian Federation of April 26, 1991 "On Rehabilitation of Exiled Peoples," repressions against Kalmyks and other peoples were qualified as acts of genocide.
[[File:Dmitry Medvedev in Mongolia August 2009-26.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Mongolian President [[Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj]] (right)]]

On 3 October 2002 the [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Republic of China)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs]] announced that Taiwan [[Foreign relations of Taiwan#Mongolia|recognizes]] Mongolia as an independent country,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/archives/2002/10/11/0000175237|title=Mongolian office to ride into Taipei by end of the year|newspaper=Taipei Times|date=2002-10-11|access-date=2009-05-28|quote=In October 1945, the people of Outer Mongolia voted for independence, gaining the recognition of many countries, including the Republic of China. (...) Due to a souring of relations with the Soviet Union in the early 1950s, however, the ROC revoked recognition of Outer Mongolia, reclaiming it as ROC territory.|archive-date=2009-02-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090210192036/http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/archives/2002/10/11/0000175237|url-status=dead}}</ref> although no legislative actions were taken to address concerns over its constitutional claims to Mongolia.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/1842387.stm|title=Taiwan 'embassy' changes anger China|work=BBC News|date=2002-02-26|access-date=2009-05-28|archive-date=2004-05-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040526084615/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/1842387.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> Offices established to support Taipei's claims over Outer Mongolia, such as the [[Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mtac.gov.tw/pages.php?lang=5|title=The History of MTAC|publisher=Mongolian & Tibetan Affairs Commission|access-date=2009-05-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090508080715/http://www.mtac.gov.tw/pages.php?lang=5|archive-date=2009-05-08|url-status=dead}}</ref> lie dormant.

[[Agin-Buryat Okrug]] and [[Ust-Orda Buryat Okrug]]s merged with [[Irkutsk Oblast]] and [[Chita Oblast]] in 2008 despite Buryats' resistance. Small scale protests occurred in Inner Mongolia in [[2011 Inner Mongolia unrest|2011]]. The [[Inner Mongolian People's Party]] is a member of the [[Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization]]<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.unpo.org/members/7883| title = unpo.org| access-date = 2014-01-23| archive-date = 2012-03-02| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120302213407/http://www.unpo.org/members/7883| url-status = live}}</ref> and its leaders are attemptin to establish a sovereign state or merge Inner Mongolia with Mongolia.{{citation needed|date=March 2024}}

[[File:Gurvger.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.35|A Mongolic [[yurt|Ger]]]]