Editing Miscegenation (section)

==Genetic admixture{{anchor|Genetic_studies_of_racial_admixture}}==
{{main|Genetic admixture}}
Sexual reproduction between two populations reduces the [[genetic distance]] between the populations. During the [[Age of Discovery]] which began in the early [[15th century]], European explorers sailed all across the globe reaching all the major continents. In the process they came into contact with many populations that had been isolated for thousands of years. The [[Tasmanian Aboriginal]]s were one of the most isolated groups on the planet.<ref name=Chasteen>{{Cite book|title=Problems in modern Latin American history, sources and interpretations|first1=John Charles |last1=Chasteen|first2=James A |last2=Wood |publisher=Sr Books| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FxRdCirZ-voC&pg=PA4|year=2003|pages=4–10|isbn=978-0-8420-5060-9}}</ref> Many died from disease and conflict, but a number of their descendants survive today as multiracial people of Tasmanian and European descent. This is an example of how modern migrations may reduce the [[genetic divergence]] of the human species, which would usually lead to [[speciation]].

[[New World]] demographics were radically changed within a short time following the voyage of [[Christopher Columbus|Columbus]].<ref name=Chasteen/> The colonization of the [[Americas]] brought [[Indigenous people of the Americas|Native Americans]] into contact with the distant populations of [[Europe]], [[Africa]] and [[Asia]].<ref name=Chasteen/> As a result, many countries in the Americas have significant and complex [[multiracial]] populations.

===Admixture in the United States===
{{See also|Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas|Multiracial American}}
Genetic studies indicate that many African-Americans possess varying degrees of European admixture, although it is suggested that the Native American admixture in African-Americans is exaggerated. Some estimates from studies indicated that many of the African-Americans who took part, had European admixture ranging from 25 to 50% in the [[Northeast United States|Northeast]] and less than 10% in the [[South United States|South]] (where a vast majority of the population reside).<ref name=23andme>{{cite bioRxiv| last1=Bryc | first1=Katarzyna | last2=Durand | first2=Eric Y. | last3=Macpherson | first3=J. Michael | last4=Reich | first4=David | last5=Mountain | first5=Joanna L. | title=The genetic ancestry of African, Latino, and European Americans across the United States | date=18 September 2014 | biorxiv=10.1101/009340}}. [http://biorxiv.org/content/biorxiv/suppl/2014/09/18/009340.DC1/009340-1.pdf "Supplemental Tables and Figures"]. p.&nbsp;42. 18 September 2014. Retrieved 16 July 2015.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theroot.com/exactly-how-black-is-black-america-1790895185|last=Gates|first=Henry Louis Jr.|date=11 February 2013|title=Exactly How 'Black' Is Black America?}}</ref> A 2003 study by [[Mark D. Shriver]] of a European-American sample found that the average admixture in the individuals who participated was 0.7% African and 3.2% Native American. However, 70% of the sample had no African admixture. The other 30% had African admixture ranging from 2% to 20% with an average of 2.3%. By extrapolating these figures to the whole population some scholars suggest that up to 74 million European-Americans may have African admixture in the same range (2–20%).<ref>{{cite web|author-link=Steve Sailer|author=Sailer, Steve|url=http://www.upi.com/Top_News/2002/05/08/Analysis-White-prof-finds-hes-not-2/UPI-53561020909970|title=Analysis: White prof finds he's not.|work=[[United Press International]]|date=8 May 2002}}</ref><ref>Shriver, et al., "[http://dl.dropboxusercontent.com/u/38568440/admixture/shriver01.pdf Skin pigmentation, biogeographical ancestry and admixture mapping] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141230031612/https://dl.dropboxusercontent.com/u/38568440/admixture/shriver01.pdf |date=30 December 2014 }}, ''[[Human Genetics (journal)|Hum Genet]]'' (2003) 112 : 387–39.</ref> Recently J.T. Frudacas, Shriver's partner in DNA Print Genomics, contradicted him stating "Five percent of European Americans exhibit some detectable level of African ancestry."<ref>Jim Wooten, "[https://web.archive.org/web/20040803055203/https://abcnews.go.com/sections/Nightline/SciTech/racial_identity_031228.html Race Reversal Man Lives as ‘Black’ for 50 Years — Then Finds Out He's Probably Not], ''[[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]]'' (2004).</ref>

Historians estimate that 58% of enslaved women in the United States aged 15–30 years were sexually assaulted by their slave owners and other White men.<ref>{{cite news |title=Racism, African American Women, and Their Sexual and Reproductive Health: A Review of Historical and Contemporary Evidence and Implications for Health Equity |publisher=National Institutes of Health (NIH)|pmc=6167003 }}</ref> One such slave owner, [[Thomas Jefferson]], fathered his slave [[Sally Hemings]]' child.<ref>{{cite news |title=DNA Study Shows Jefferson Fathered His Slave's Child |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1998-nov-01-mn-38336-story.html |access-date=July 19, 2024 |newspaper=Low Angeles Times}}</ref> While publicly opposed to race mixing, in his ''[[Notes on the State of Virginia]]'' published in 1785, Jefferson wrote: "The improvement of the blacks in body and mind, in the first instance of their mixture with the whites, has been observed by every one, and proves that their inferiority is not the effect merely of their condition of life".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Higginbotham |first1=A. Leon |title=In the Matter of Color: Race and the American Legal Process. The Colonial Period |date=1980 |page=10}}</ref>

Within the African-American population, the amount of African admixture is directly correlated with darker skin since less selective pressure against dark skin is applied within the group of "non-passing" individuals. Thus, African-Americans may have a much wider range of African admixture (>0–100%), whereas European-Americans have a lower range (2–20%).
[[File:Alfred Jacob Miller - The Trapper's Bride - Walters 37194012.jpg|thumb|170px|''The Trapper's Bride'' shows a [[American Fur Company|trapper]], Francois, paying $600 in trade goods for an Indian woman to be his wife, {{Circa|1837}}.]]

A statistical analysis done in 1958 using historical census data and historical data on immigration and birth rates concluded that 21% of the white population had black ancestors. The growth in the White population could not be attributed to births in the White population and immigration from Europe alone, but had received significant contribution from the African American population as well.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Stuckert|first=Robert P.|date=May 1908|title=African Ancestry of the White American Population|journal=The Ohio Journal of Science|volume=58|issue=3|page=155|url=https://kb.osu.edu/dspace/bitstream/1811/4532/1/V58N03_155.pdf|access-date=13 July 2008}}</ref>
The author states in 1958:

{{blockquote|The data presented in this study indicate that the popular belief in the non-African background of white persons is invalid. Over twenty-eight million white persons are descendants of persons of African origin. Furthermore, the majority of the persons with African ancestry are classified as White.}}

A 2003 study on Y-chromosomes and mtDNA detected no African admixture in the European-Americans who took part in it. The sample included 628 European-American Y-chromosomes and mtDNA from 922 European-Americans<ref>{{Cite journal |pmc = 430174|year = 2003|last1 = Kayser|first1 = M.|title = Y Chromosome STR Haplotypes and the Genetic Structure of U.S. Populations of African, European, and Hispanic Ancestry|journal = Genome Research|volume = 13|issue = 4|pages = 624–634|last2 = Brauer|first2 = S.|last3 = Schädlich|first3 = H.|last4 = Prinz|first4 = M.|last5 = Batzer|first5 = M. A.|last6 = Zimmerman|first6 = P. A.|last7 = Boatin|first7 = B. A.|last8 = Stoneking|first8 = M.|pmid = 12671003|doi = 10.1101/gr.463003}}</ref> According to a genome-wide study by 23andMe, White Americans (European Americans) who participated were: "98.6 percent European, 0.19 percent African and 0.18 percent Native American on average."<ref name=23andme/>

In the United States, intermarriage among [[Filipino Americans|Filipinos]] with other races is common. They have the largest number of interracial marriages among Asian immigrant groups, as documented in California.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.asian-nation.org/interracial.shtml
|title=Interracial Dating & Marriage
|work=asian-nation.org
|access-date=30 August 2007}}</ref> It is also noted that 21.8% of Filipino Americans are of mixed blood, second among Asian Americans, and is the fastest growing.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.asian-nation.org/multiracial.shtml
|title=Multiracial / Hapa Asian Americans
|work=asian-nation.org
|access-date=30 August 2007}}</ref>

===Admixture in Latin America===

====Background====
Prior to the European conquest of the [[Americas]] the demographics of [[Latin America]] was naturally 100% [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|American Indian]]. Today those who identify themselves as Native Americans are small minorities in many countries. For example, the CIA lists [[Demographics of Argentina#Indigenous peoples|Argentina's]] at 0.9%, [[Indigenous peoples in Brazil|Brazil's]] at 0.4%, and [[Uruguay]]'s at 0%.<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/index.html CIA Factbook] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107142508/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/index.html |date=7 November 2017 }}. Cia.gov. Retrieved 11 December 2011.</ref> However, the range varies widely from country to country in [[Latin America]] with some countries having significantly larger [[Amerindian]] minorities.

[[File:Ignacio María Barreda - Las castas mexicanas.jpg|thumb|left|Depiction of casta system in [[New Spain|Mexico]], 18th century|309x309px]]

The early conquest of Latin America was primarily carried out by male soldiers and sailors from [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]]. Since they carried very few European women on their journeys the new settlers married and fathered children with Amerindian women and also with women taken by force from [[Africa]]. This process of miscegenation was even encouraged by the [[Spanish Monarchy]] and it led to the system of stratification known as the [[Casta]]. This system had Europeans ([[Spanish people|Spaniards]] and [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]]) at the top of the hierarchy followed by those of [[mixed race]]. Unmixed Blacks and Native Americans were at the bottom. A philosophy of [[Racial whitening|whitening]], an example of [[scientific racism]] in favor of [[white supremacy]], emerged in which Amerindian and African culture were stigmatized in favor of European values. Many Amerindian languages were lost as mixed race offspring adopted [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] as their first languages. Only towards the end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th century did large numbers of Europeans begin to migrate to [[South America]] and consequently altering its [[Latin america#Demographics|demographics]].

In addition many [[Ethnic groups of Africa|Africans]] were shipped to regions all over the Americas and were present in many of the early voyages of the [[conquistador]]s. [[Brazil]] has the largest population of African descendants outside Africa. Other countries such as [[Jamaica]], [[Cuba]], [[Puerto Rico]], [[Dominican Republic]], [[Haiti]], [[Venezuela]], [[Colombia]], and [[Ecuador]] still have sizeable populations identified as [[Black people|Black]]. However countries such as [[Argentina]] do not have a visible African presence today. Census information from the early 19th century shows that people categorized as Black made up to 30% of the population, or around 400,000 people.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Fejerman | first1 = L. | last2 = Carnese | first2 = F. R. | last3 = Goicoechea | first3 = A. S. | last4 = Avena | first4 = S. A. | last5 = Dejean | first5 = C. B. | last6 = Ward | first6 = R. H. | doi = 10.1002/ajpa.20083 | title = African ancestry of the population of Buenos Aires | journal = American Journal of Physical Anthropology | volume = 128 | issue = 1 | pages = 164–170 | year = 2005 | pmid =  15714513}}</ref> Though almost completely absent today, their contribution to Argentine culture is significant and include the [[Argentine tango|tango]], the [[Milonga (music)|milonga]] and the [[Zamba (artform)|zamba]], words of [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] origin.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cwo.com/~lucumi/argentina.html|title=Blacks in Argentina: Disappearing Acts|last=Aidi|first=Hisham|date=2 April 2002|work=History Notes|publisher=The Global African Community|access-date=13 July 2008}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="float: right;"
|-
! colspan="4"|Demographics of Brazil in 1835, 1940, 2000 and 2008<ref name="skidmore">{{Cite journal|first=Thomas E. |last=Skidmore |title=Fact and Myth: Discovering a Racial Problem in Brazil|journal=Working Paper|volume=173|url=http://www.nd.edu/~kellogg/publications/workingpapers/WPS/173.pdf|date=April 1992}}</ref><ref>[http://noticias.uol.com.br/especiais/pnad/ultnot/2009/09/18/ult6843u18.jhtm Brasil perde brancos e pretos e ganha 3,2 milhões de pardos]. Noticias.uol.com.br (18 September 2009). Retrieved 11 December 2011.</ref>
|-
! Year!! White !! Brown!! Black
|-
| 1835
| 24.4% || 18.2%||51.4%
|-
| 1940
| 64% ||21%||14%
|-
| 2000
| 53.7% ||38.5%||6.2%
|-
| 2008
| 48.8% ||43.8%||6.5%
|}
The ideology of whitening encouraged non-whites to seek white or lighter skinned partners. This dilution of non-white admixture would be beneficial to their offspring as they would face less stigmatization and find it easier to assimilate into mainstream society. After successive generations of European gene flow, non-white admixture levels would drop below levels at which skin color or physical appearance is not affected thus allowing individuals to identify as White. In many regions, the native and black populations were simply overwhelmed by a succession of waves of European immigration.

Historians and scientists are thus interested in tracing the fate of Native Americans and Africans from the past to the future. The questions remain about what proportion of these populations simply died out and what proportion still has descendants alive today including those who do not racially identify themselves as their ancestors would have. Admixture testing has thus become a useful objective tool in shedding light on the demographic history of Latin America.

====Recent studies====
[[File:Cabrera Pintura de Castas.jpg|thumb|upright|A Spaniard plays with his mixed-race daughter while his Mulatta wife looks on, [[Miguel Cabrera (painter)|Miguel Cabrera]], 1763, Colonial Mexico.]]
Unlike the United States, there were no anti-miscegenation policies in Latin America. Though still a racially stratified society there were no significant barriers to gene flow between the three populations. As a result, admixture profiles are a reflection of the colonial populations of Africans, Europeans and Amerindians. The pattern is also sex biased in that the African and Amerindian maternal lines are found in significantly higher proportions than African or Amerindian Y chromosomal lines. This is an indication that the primary mating pattern was that of European males with Amerindian or African females. According to the study more than half the White populations of the Latin American countries studied have some degree of either Native American or African admixture ([[MtDNA]] or [[Y chromosome]]). In countries such as [[Chile]] and [[Colombia]] almost the entire white population was shown to have some non-white admixture.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Martínez Marignac|first=Verónica L.|author2=Bianchi Néstor O.|author3=Bertoni Bernardo|author4=Parra Esteban J.|year=2004|title=Characterization of Admixture in an Urban Sample from Buenos Aires, Argentina, Using Uniparentally and Biparentally Inherited Genetic Markers|journal=Human Biology| volume=76|issue=4|pages=543–57|url=http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/human_biology/v076/76.4marignac.html| doi=10.1353/hub.2004.0058|pmid=15754971|s2cid=13708018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gonçalves|first=V. F.|author2=Prosdocimi F.|author3=Santos L. S.|author4=Ortega J. M.|author5=Pena S. D. J.|date=9 May 2007|title=Sex-biased gene flow in African Americans but not in American Caucasians |journal=Genetics and Molecular Research|volume=6|issue=2|pages=256–61|issn=1676-5680|url=http://www.funpecrp.com.br/gmr/year2007/vol2-6/gmr0330_full_text.htm|access-date=13 July 2008|pmid=17573655}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Alves-Silva | first1 = Juliana| last2 = da Silva Santos | first2 = Magda| last3 = Guimarães | first3 = Pedro E. M.| last4 = Ferreira | first4 = Alessandro C. S.| last5 = Bandelt | first5 = Hans-Jürgen | last6 = Pena | first6 = Sérgio D. J.| last7 = Prado | first7 = Vania Ferreira| doi = 10.1086/303004 | title = The Ancestry of Brazilian mtDNA Lineages | journal = [[The American Journal of Human Genetics]]| volume = 67 | issue = 2 | pages = 444–461 | year = 2000 | pmid = 10873790| pmc = 1287189| display-authors=6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Salzano|first=Francisco M. |author2=Cátira Bortolini, Maria |title=The Evolution and Genetics of Latin American Populations|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|year=2002|series=Cambridge Studies in Biological and Evolutionary Anthropology|volume=28|page=512|isbn=978-0-521-65275-9}}</ref>

[[Frank Moya Pons]], a [[Dominican Republic|Dominican]] historian documented that Spanish colonists intermarried with [[Taíno]] women, and, over time, these mestizo descendants intermarried with Africans, creating a tri-racial Creole culture. 1514 census records reveal that 40% of Spanish men in the colony of [[Captaincy General of Santo Domingo|Santo Domingo]] had Taíno wives.<ref>Ferbel, Dr. P. J. [http://www.kacike.org/FerbelEnglish.html "Not Everyone Who Speaks Spanish is from Spain: Taíno Survival in the 21st Century Dominican Republic".] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100529100634/http://www.kacike.org/FerbelEnglish.html |date=29 May 2010 }} ''Kacikie: Journal of Caribbean Amerindian History and Anthropology.'' . Retrieved 24 September 2009.</ref> A 2002 study conducted in [[Puerto Rico]] suggests that over 61% of the population possess Amerindian mtDNA.<ref>Martínez Cruzado, Juan C. (2002). [http://www.kacike.org/MartinezEnglish.pdf The Use of Mitochondrial DNA to Discover Pre-Columbian Migrations to the Caribbean:Results for Puerto Rico and Expectations for the Dominican Republic.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040622184420/http://www.kacike.org/MartinezEnglish.pdf |date=22 June 2004 }} ''Kacike: The Journal of Caribbean Amerindian History and Anthropology.'' Lynne Guitar, Ed. (Retrieved 25 September 2006)</ref>

===Admixture in the Philippines===
[[History of the Philippines (1898–1946)|Historically]], admixture has been a common phenomenon in the Philippines. The Philippines were originally settled by [[Australoid]] peoples called [[Negritos]] which now form the country's aboriginal community. Admixture occurred between this earlier group and the mainstream [[Malayo-Polynesian]] population.<ref name=stanford>{{Cite journal | last1 = Thangaraj | first1 = K. | last2 = Singh | first2 = L. | last3 = Reddy | first3 = A. G. | last4 = Rao | first4 = V. R. | last5 = Sehgal | first5 = S. C. | last6 = Underhill | first6 = P. A. | last7 = Pierson | first7 = M. | last8 = Frame | first8 = I. G. | display-authors = 6| last9 = Hagelberg | first9 = E. | doi = 10.1016/S0960-9822(02)01336-2 | title = Genetic Affinities of the Andaman Islanders, a Vanishing Human Population | journal = Current Biology | volume = 13 | issue = 2 | pages = 86–93 | year = 2003 | pmid =  12546781| s2cid = 12155496 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2003CBio...13...86T }}</ref>

There has been [[Indian Filipino|Indian migration]] to and influence in the Philippines since the precolonial era. About 25% of the words in the [[Tagalog language]] are [[Sanskrit]] terms and about 5% of the country's population possess Indian ancestry from antiquity.<ref name=precolonial>[https://web.archive.org/web/20091020001239/http://geocities.com/CollegePark/Pool/1644/precolonial.html Pre Colonial Period]. geocities.com</ref> There has been a [[Chinese people|Chinese]] presence in the [[Philippines]] since the 9th century. However, large-scale migrations of Chinese to the Philippines only started during the Spanish colonial era, when the world market was opened to the Philippines. It is estimated that among [[Filipino people|Filipinos]], 10%–20% have some Chinese ancestry and 1.5% are "full-blooded" Chinese.<ref name=ocac>[http://www.ocac.gov.tw/english/public/public.asp?selno=1163&no=1163&level=B :: Overseas Compatriot Affairs Commission, R.O.C. ::] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110104195124/http://www.ocac.gov.tw/english/public/public.asp?selno=1163&no=1163&level=B |date=4 January 2011 }}. Ocac.gov.tw (24 August 2004). Retrieved 14 August 2010.</ref>

According to the American [[Anthropology|anthropologist]] Dr. H. Otley Beyer, the ancestry of [[Filipino people|Filipinos]] is 2% [[Arab]]. This dates back to when Arab traders intermarried with the local [[Malay race|Malay]] Filipino female populations during the [[History of the Philippines (Before 1521)|pre-Spanish history of the Philippines]].<ref name=Arab-Malays>{{cite web|title=Arab and native intermarriage in Austronesian Asia|work=ColorQ World|url=http://www.colorq.org/MeltingPot/article.aspx?d=Asia&x=ArabMalays|access-date=24 December 2008}}</ref> A recent genetic study by [[Stanford University]] indicates that at least 3.6% of the population are [[European ethnic groups|European]] or of part European descent from both [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] and United States colonization.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Capelli | first1 = C. | last2 = Wilson | first2 = J. F. | last3 = Richards | first3 = M. | last4 = Stumpf | first4 = M. P. H. | last5 = Gratrix | first5 = F. | last6 = Oppenheimer | first6 = S. | last7 = Underhill | first7 = P. | last8 = Pascali | first8 = V. L. | last9 = Ko | first9 = T. M. | doi = 10.1086/318205 | last10 = Goldstein | first10 = D. B. | title = A Predominantly Indigenous Paternal Heritage for the Austronesian-Speaking Peoples of Insular Southeast Asia and Oceania | journal = The American Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 68 | issue = 2 | pages = 432–443 | year = 2001 | pmid =  11170891| pmc = 1235276}}</ref>

===Admixture among the Romani people===
{{multiple image
 | align = right
 | total_width = 450

 | image1 = Debret casa ciganos.jpg
 | caption1 = Interior of a Roma's house in [[Brazil]] c. 1820, by [[Jean-Baptiste Debret|Debret]]

 | image2 = RO CJ Mociu Roma dancers.jpg
 | caption2 = Romani dancers in [[Romania]]
}}
Genetic evidence has shown that the [[Romani people]] originated from the [[Indian subcontinent]] and mixed with the local populations in [[Central Asia]], the [[Middle East]], and [[Europe]]. In the 1990s, it was discovered that Romani populations carried large frequencies of particular [[Y chromosome]]s (inherited paternally) that otherwise exist only in populations from [[South Asia]], in addition to fairly significant frequencies of particular [[mitochondrial DNA]] (inherited maternally) that is rare outside South Asia.

47.3% of Romani males carry Y chromosomes of [[Haplogroup H (Y-DNA)|haplogroup H-M82]] which is rare outside of the Indian subcontinent.<ref name="kalaydjieva">{{Cite journal 
| last1 = Kalaydjieva | first1 = L. 
| last2 = Morar | first2 = B. 
| last3 = Chaix | first3 = R. 
| last4 = Tang | first4 = H. 
| title = A newly discovered founder population: The Roma/Gypsies 
| doi = 10.1002/bies.20287 
| journal = BioEssays 
| volume = 27 
| issue = 10 
| pages = 1084–1094 
| year = 2005 
| pmid = 16163730 
}}</ref> Mitochondrial [[Haplogroup M (mtDNA)|haplogroup M]], most common in Indian subjects and rare outside Southern Asia, accounts for nearly 30% of Romani people.<ref name="kalaydjieva"/> A more detailed study of Polish [[Romani people|Romani]] shows this to be of the M5 lineage, which is specific to India.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Malyarchuk | first1 = B. A. | last2 = Grzybowski | first2 = T. | last3 = Derenko | first3 = M. V. | last4 = Czarny | first4 = J. | last5 = Miscicka-Sliwka | first5 = D. | title = Mitochondrial DNA Diversity in the Polish Roma | doi = 10.1111/j.1529-8817.2005.00222.x | journal = Annals of Human Genetics | volume = 70 | issue = 2 | pages = 195–206 | year = 2006 | pmid =  16626330| s2cid = 662278 }}</ref> Moreover, a form of the inherited disorder [[Myasthenia gravis|congenital myasthenia]] is found in Romani subjects. This form of the disorder, caused by the 1267delG mutation, is otherwise only known in subjects of Indian ancestry. This is considered to be the best evidence of the Indian ancestry of the Romanies.<ref name="Bharti_Morar">{{Cite journal 
| last1 = Morar | first1 = B. 
| last2 = Gresham | first2 = D. 
| last3 = Angelicheva | first3 = D. 
| last4 = Tournev | first4 = I. 
| last5 = Gooding | first5 = R. 
| last6 = Guergueltcheva | first6 = V. 
| last7 = Schmidt | first7 = C. 
| last8 = Abicht | first8 = A. 
| last9 = Lochmuller | first9 = H. 
| doi = 10.1086/424759 
| last10 = Tordai | first10 = A. 
| last11 = Kalmár | first11 = L. 
| last12 = Nagy | first12 = M. 
| last13 = Karcagi | first13 = V. 
| last14 = Jeanpierre | first14 = M. 
| last15 = Herczegfalvi | first15 = A. 
| last16 = Beeson | first16 = D. 
| last17 = Venkataraman | first17 = V. 
| last18 = Warwick Carter | first18 = K. 
| last19 = Reeve | first19 = J. 
| last20 = De Pablo | first20 = R. 
| last21 = Kučinskas | first21 = V. 
| last22 = Kalaydjieva | first22 = L. 
| title = Mutation History of the Roma/Gypsies 
| journal = The American Journal of Human Genetics 
| volume = 75 
| issue = 4 
| pages = 596–609 
| year = 2004 
| pmid = 15322984 
| pmc =1182047 
| display-authors=6
}}</ref>

The Romanis have been described as "a conglomerate of genetically isolated founder populations",<ref name="Luba_Kalaydjieva">{{Cite journal | last1 = Kalaydjieva | first1 = L. | last2 = Gresham | first2 = D. | last3 = Calafell | first3 = F. | title = Genetic studies of the Roma (Gypsies): A review | journal = BMC Medical Genetics | volume = 2 | pages = 5 | year = 2001 | doi = 10.1186/1471-2350-2-5 | pmid =  11299048| pmc =31389 | doi-access = free }}</ref> while a number of common Mendelian disorders among Romanies from all over Europe indicates "a common origin and founder effect".<ref name="Luba_Kalaydjieva"/> See also this table:<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1186/1471-2350-2-5|year=2001|last1=Kalaydjieva|first1=Luba|last2=Gresham|first2=David|last3=Calafell|first3=Francesc|journal=BMC Medical Genetics|volume=2|page=5|pmid=11299048|title=Genetic studies of the Roma (Gypsies): A review|pmc=31389 |doi-access=free }} [http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2350/2/5/figure/F4 Figure 4].</ref>

A study from 2001 by Gresham et al. suggests "a limited number of related founders, compatible with a small group of migrants splitting from a distinct caste or tribal group".<ref name="David_Gresham"/> Also the study pointed out that "genetic drift and different levels and sources of admixture, appear to have played a role in the subsequent differentiation of populations".<ref name="David_Gresham">{{Cite journal |title=Origins and Divergence of the Roma (Gypsies) |journal=American Journal of Human Genetics |volume=69 |issue=6 |pages=1314–1331 |pmid=11704928 |doi=10.1086/324681 |pmc=1235543 |year=2001 |last1=Gresham |first1=D. |last2=Morar |first2=B. |last3=Underhill |first3=P. A. |last4=Passarino |first4=G. |last5=Lin |first5=A. A. |last6=Wise |first6=C. |last7=Angelicheva |first7=D. |last8=Calafell |first8=F. |last9=Oefner |first9=P. J. |last10=Shen |first10=P. |last11=Tournev |first11=I. |last12=De Pablo |first12=R. |last13=Kuĉinskas |first13=V. |last14=Perez-Lezaun |first14=A. |last15=Marushiakova |first15=E. |last16=Popov |first16=V. |last17=Kalaydjieva |first17=L. | display-authors=6}}</ref> The same study found that "a single lineage ... found across Romani populations, accounts for almost one-third of Romani males. A similar preservation of a highly resolved male lineage has been reported elsewhere only for Jewish priests".<ref name="David_Gresham"/> See also the [[Y-chromosomal Aaron|Cohen Modal Haplotype]].

A 2004 study by Morar et al. concluded that the Romani are "a founder population of common origins that has subsequently split into multiple socially divergent and geographically dispersed Gypsy groups".<ref name="Bharti_Morar"/> The same study revealed that this population "was founded approximately 32–40 generations ago, with secondary and tertiary founder events occurring approximately 16–25 generations ago".<ref name="Bharti_Morar"/>

===Admixture in South Africa===
{{See also|Coloureds}}
[[File:South Africa 2011 Coloured population proportion map.svg|thumb|250px|Coloured people as a proportion of the total population in South Africa.
{{clear}}
{{legend-col
|{{legend|#EDF8E9|0–20%}}
|{{legend|#BAE4B3|20–40%}}
|{{legend|#74C476|40–60%}}
|{{legend|#31A354|60–80%}}
|{{legend|#006D2C|80–100%}}
}}]]
'''Coloureds''' ({{langx|af|Kleurlinge}} or ''Bruinmense'', lit. "Brown people") are a [[multiracial]] [[ethnic group]] [[Indigenous peoples of Africa|native]] to [[Southern Africa]] who have ancestry from more than one of the various populations inhabiting the region, including [[Khoisan]], [[Bantu peoples|Bantu]], [[White South Africans|European]], [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian]], [[East Asian people|East Asian]] or [[South Asian ethnic groups|South Asian]]. Because of the combination of ethnicities, different families and individuals within a family may have a variety of different physical features.<ref>{{cite web|title=coloured|url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/coloured?q=coloured|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140309100643/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/coloured?q=coloured|url-status=dead|archive-date=9 March 2014|work=Oxford Dictionaries|publisher=Oxford University|access-date=14 April 2014}}</ref><ref name="Posel2001">{{cite journal |url=http://www.transformation.und.ac.za/issue%2047/47%20posel1.pdf |title= What's in a name? Racial categorisations under apartheid and their afterlife|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061108101109/http://www.transformation.und.ac.za/issue%2047/47%20posel1.pdf |archive-date=8 November 2006 |journal=Transformation|issn=0258-7696 |year=2001|last=Posel|first= Deborah|pages= 50–74}}</ref> ''Coloured'' was a legally defined [[Race (human categorization)|racial classification]] during [[apartheid]].<ref name="Posel2001"/><ref name="Pillay2019">{{cite book|last1=Pillay|first1=Kathryn|title=The Palgrave Handbook of Ethnicity|chapter=Indian Identity in South Africa|year=2019|pages=77–92|doi=10.1007/978-981-13-2898-5_9|isbn=978-981-13-2897-8|doi-access=free}}</ref>
In the [[Western Cape]], a distinctive [[Cape Coloureds|Cape Coloured]] and affiliated [[Cape Malay]] culture developed. In other parts of Southern Africa, people classified as Coloured were usually the descendants of individuals from two distinct ethnicities. Genetic studies suggest the group has the highest levels of mixed ancestry in the world.<!-- Number of people included? --><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna30502963|title=Africans have world's greatest genetic variation
|work = NBC News|last=Schmid|first=Randolph E.|date=30 April 2009|access-date=23 October 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Tishkoff SA, Reed FA, Friedlaender FR |title=The Genetic Structure and History of Africans and African Americans |journal=Science |date=April 2009 |pmid=19407144 |pmc=2947357 |doi=10.1126/science.1172257 |volume=324 |issue=5930 |pages=1035–44|display-authors=etal|bibcode=2009Sci...324.1035T }}</ref> [[Mitochondrial DNA]] studies have demonstrated that the maternal lines of the Coloured population are descended mostly from African [[Khoisan]] women. This ethnicity shows a gender-biased admixture.<ref name="cell.com">{{cite journal |last1=Quintana-Murci |first1=L |last2=Harmant |first2=C |first3=Quach |last3=H |last4=Balanovsky |first4=O |last5=Zaporozhchenko |first5=V |last6=Bormans |first6=C |last7=van Helden |first7=PD |year=2010 |title= Strong maternal Khoisan contribution to the South African coloured population: a case of gender-biased admixture| journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics|url= |display-authors=etal |doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2010.02.014 |volume=86 |issue=4 |pages=611–620 |pmid=20346436 |pmc=2850426}}</ref><ref name="onlinelibrary.wiley.com">{{cite journal |last1=Schlebusch |first1=CM |last2=Naidoo |first2=T |last3=Soodyall |first3=H |year=2009 |title= SNaPshot minisequencing to resolve mitochondrial macro-haplogroups found in Africa |doi=10.1002/elps.200900197 |volume=30 |issue=21 |journal=Electrophoresis|pages=3657–3664 |pmid=19810027|s2cid=19515426 }}</ref> While a plurality of male lines have come from Ngunis, Southern African, West African and East African populations, 45.2%, [[Western Europe]]an lineages contributed 37.3% to paternal components and [[South Asian]]/ [[Southeast Asian]] lineages 17.5%.<ref name="cell.com" /><ref name="onlinelibrary.wiley.com" />

Coloureds are to be mostly found in the western part of [[South Africa]]. In [[Cape Town]], they form 45.4% of the total population, according to the [[South African National Census of 2011]].<ref name="wc-muni-report">
{{Cite book
 |title      = Census 2011 Municipal report: Western Cape
 |publisher  = Statistics South Africa
 |year       = 2012
 |isbn       = 978-0-621-41459-2
 |url        = http://www.statssa.gov.za/census/census_2011/census_products/WC_Municipal_Report.pdf
 |access-date = 30 November 2016
}}
</ref>{{rp|56–59}}