Editing Misanthropy (section)

== In various disciplines ==

=== History of philosophy ===
Misanthropy has been discussed and exemplified by philosophers throughout history. One of the earliest cases was the [[Pre-Socratic philosophy|pre-Socratic philosopher]] [[Heraclitus]]. He is often characterized as a solitary person who is not fond of social interactions with others. A central factor to his negative outlook on human beings was their lack of comprehension of the true nature of reality. This concerns especially cases in which they remain in a state of ignorance despite having received a thorough explanation of the issue in question.{{sfn|Moyal|1989|pp=[http://www.jstor.org/stable/24353851 131–148]}}{{sfn|Mark|2010}}{{sfn|Ava|2004|p=80}} Another early discussion is found in Plato's Phaedo, where misanthropy is characterized as the result of frustrated expectations and excessively naïve optimism.{{sfn|Stern|1993|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nJAFnvm2fg4C 95]}}{{sfn|Shakespeare|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mcQ0AAAAQBAJ&pg=PT208 208]}}{{sfn|White|1989|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nsdfdzRSLYAC&pg=PA134 134]}}

[[File:Diogenes looking for a man - attributed to JHW Tischbein.jpg|thumb|alt=Painting of Diogenes search for an honest man|The cynic philosopher Diogenes had a negative image of the people around him and cared little for social conventions. For example, he used to walk around with a lamp in full daylight in his unsuccessful attempt to find a man he would consider honest or worthy.{{sfn|Yeroulanos|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=knv1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA203 203]}}{{sfn|Navia|1996}}]]
Various reflections on misanthropy are also found in the [[Cynicism (philosophy)|cynic school of philosophy]]. There it is argued, for instance, that humans keep on reproducing and multiplying the evils they are attempting to flee. An example given by the first-century philosopher [[Dio Chrysostom]] is that humans move to cities to defend themselves against outsiders but this process thwarts their initial goal by leading to even more violence due to high crime rates within the city. [[Diogenes]] is a well-known cynic misanthrope. He saw other people as hypocritical and superficial. He openly rejected all kinds of societal norms and values, often provoking others by consciously breaking conventions and behaving rudely.{{sfn|Gibson|2017|pp=14–6}}{{sfn|Querido|2020|pp=152–7}}{{sfn|Arruzza|Nikulin|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yLWPDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA119 119]}}

Thomas Hobbes is an example of misanthropy in early [[modern philosophy]]. His negative outlook on humanity is reflected in many of his works. For him, humans are egoistic and violent: they act according to their self-interest and are willing to pursue their goals at the expense of others. In their natural state, this leads to a never-ending war in which "[[Bellum omnium contra omnes|every man to every man ... is an enemy]]". He saw the establishment of an authoritative state characterized by the strict enforcement of laws to maintain order as the only way to tame the violent human nature and avoid [[perpetual war]].{{sfn|Gibson|2017|pp=93, 95, 98}}{{sfn|Williams|2023}}{{sfn|Byrne|1997|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FcEy8SF63TgC&pg=PA112 112]}}

A further type of misanthropy is found in [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]. He idealizes the harmony and simplicity found in nature and contrasts them with the confusion and disorder found in humanity, especially in the form of society and institutions.{{sfn|Gibson|2017|pp=110–1}}{{sfn|Cooper|2018|p=19}}{{sfn|King|1993|pp=58–9}} For instance, he claims that "Man is born free; and everywhere he is in chains".{{sfn|Gibson|2017|p=112}}{{sfn|Williams|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nsRrONAvdnYC&pg=PA147 147]}} This negative outlook was also reflected in his lifestyle: he lived solitary and preferred to be with plants rather than humans.{{sfn|Gibson|2017|p=111}}

Arthur Schopenhauer is often mentioned as a prime example of misanthropy.{{sfn|Svoboda|2022|pp=12, 15}}{{sfn|Gibson|2017|p=101}} According to him, everything in the world, including humans and their activities, is an expression of one underlying will. This will is blind, which causes it to continuously engage in futile struggles. On the level of human life, this "presents itself as a continual deception" since it is driven by pointless [[desire]]s. They are mostly egoistic and often result in [[injustice]] and [[suffering]] to others. Once they are satisfied, they only give rise to new pointless desires and more suffering.{{sfn|Gibson|2017|pp=101–3}}{{sfn|Svoboda|2022|pp=15–6}}{{sfn|Troxell|2023}} In this regard, Schopenhauer dismisses most things that are typically considered precious or meaningful in human life, like romantic love, individuality, and liberty.{{sfn|Gibson|2017|pp=104–5}} He holds that the best response to the human condition is a form of [[asceticism]] by denying the expression of the will. This is only found in rare humans and "the dull majority of men" does not live up to this ideal.{{sfn|Gibson|2017|pp=105–6}}

[[Friedrich Nietzsche]], who was strongly influenced by Schopenhauer, is also often cited as an example of misanthropy. He saw man as a decadent and "sick animal" that shows no progress over other animals.{{sfn|Cooper|2018|p=2}}{{sfn|Villa|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Wc3xDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA127 127]}}{{sfn|Wilkerson|2023}} He even expressed a negative attitude toward apes since they are more similar to human beings than other animals, for example, with regard to cruelty.{{sfn|Cooper|2018|p=62}} For Nietzsche, a noteworthy flaw of human beings is their tendency to create and enforce systems of [[Morality|moral rules]] that favor weak people and suppress true greatness.{{sfn|Villa|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Wc3xDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA127 127]}}{{sfn|Solomon|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VuQiiM-ntHwC&pg=PA67 67]}} He held that the human being is something to be overcome and used the term [[Übermensch]] to describe an ideal individual who has transcended traditional moral and societal norms.{{sfn|Shaw|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_ic9EAAAQBAJ&pg=PR32 xxxii]}}{{sfn|Grillaert|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7YFFSa5YE5wC&pg=PA245 245]}}

=== Religion ===
[[File:Michiel Coxie - Original Sin - WGA05581.jpg|thumb|upright=0.6|alt=Painting "Original Sin" by Michael Coxcie|Focus on the sinful nature of human beings is one form of misanthropy. According to [[Christian doctrine]], the [[original sin]] of [[Adam and Eve]] is responsible when they ate from the forbidden tree.]]
Some misanthropic views are also found in religious teachings. In [[Christianity]], for instance, this is linked to the [[sin]]ful nature of humans and the widespread manifestation of sin in everyday life.{{sfn|Gibson|2017|pp=28–9}} Common forms of sin are discussed in terms of the [[seven deadly sins]]. Examples are an excessive sense of self-importance in the form of [[Pride (sin)|pride]] and strong sexual cravings constituting [[Lust (sin)|lust]]. They also include the tendency to follow [[Greed (sin)|greed]] for material possessions as well as being [[Envy|envious]] of the possessions of others.{{sfn|Kastenbaum|2003|loc=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/christianity/christianity-general/seven-deadly-sins Seven Deadly Sins]}} According to the doctrine of [[original sin]], this flaw is found in every human being since the doctrine states that human nature is already tainted by sin from birth by inheriting it from Adam and Eve's rebellion against God's authority.{{sfn|Gibson|2017|pp=28–9}}{{sfn|Hale|Thorson|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=c91CuCqCM80C&pg=PT54 46]}} [[John Calvin]]'s theology of [[Total depravity]] has been described by some theologians as misanthropic.{{sfn|Sarvis|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bwiaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA8 8]}}{{sfn|Alger|1882|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=cSFOAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA109 109]}}{{sfn|Goodliff|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=sdXYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA108 108]}}

Misanthropic perspectives can also be discerned in various [[Buddhist]] teachings. For example, [[Buddha]] had a negative outlook on the widespread flaws of human beings, including lust, hatred, delusion, sorrow, and despair.{{sfn|Cooper|2018|p=4}} These flaws are identified with some form of craving or attachment ([[taṇhā]]) and cause suffering ([[dukkha]]).{{sfn|Cooper|2018|pp=6–7}}{{sfn|Morgan|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2vgbURej-qAC&pg=PA91 91]}} Buddhists hold that it is possible to overcome these failings in the process of achieving [[Buddhahood]] or enlightenment. However, this is seen as a difficult achievement, meaning that these failings apply to most human beings.{{sfn|Cooper|2018|p=56}}

However, there are also many religious teachings opposed to misanthropy, such as the emphasis on kindness and helping others. In Christianity, this is found in the concept of [[agape]], which involves selfless and unconditional love in the form of compassion and a willingness to help others.{{sfn|Catholic University of America|1967|loc=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/christianity/early-christianity/agape Agape]}} Buddhists see the practice of loving kindness ([[Maitrī|metta]]) as a central aspect that implies a positive intention of compassion and the expression of kindness toward all sentient beings.{{sfn|Aung|1996|p=E12}}{{sfn|Morgan|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2vgbURej-qAC&pg=PA138 138]}}

=== Literature and popular culture ===
Many examples of misanthropy are also found in literature and popular culture. [[Timon of Athens]] by [[William Shakespeare]] is a famous portrayal of the life of the Ancient Greek [[Timon of Athens (person)|Timon]], who is widely known for his extreme misanthropic attitude. Shakespeare depicts him as a wealthy and generous gentleman. However, he becomes disillusioned with his ungrateful friends and humanity at large. This way, his initial philanthropy turns into an unrestrained hatred of humanity, which prompts him to leave society in order to live in a forest.{{sfn|Harris|2022|pp=27–30}}{{sfn|Gibson|2017|pp=1–2}} [[Molière]]'s play ''[[The Misanthrope]]'' is another famous example. Its protagonist, Alceste, has a low opinion of the people around him. He tends to focus on their flaws and openly criticizes them for their superficiality, insincerity, and hypocrisy. He rejects most social conventions and thereby often offends others, for example, by refusing to engage in social niceties like polite small talk.{{sfn|Gibson|2017|pp=2–4}}{{sfn|Harris|2022|p=58}}{{sfn|Hawcroft|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ewxREAAAQBAJ&pg=PA132 132]}}

[[File:Portrait of Jonathan Swift - Francis Bindon .PNG|thumb|alt=Portrait of Jonathan Swift by Francis Bindon|Jonathan Swift is well known for his often explicit pronouncements of misanthropy.]]
The author [[Jonathan Swift]] had a reputation for being misanthropic. In some statements, he openly declares that he hates and detests "that animal called man".{{sfn|Gibson|2017|p=14}} Misanthropy is also found in many of his works. An example is ''[[Gulliver's Travels]]'', which tells the adventures of the protagonist Gulliver, who journeys to various places, like an island inhabited by tiny people and a land ruled by intelligent horses. Through these experiences of the contrast between humans and other species, he comes to see more and more the deep flaws of humanity, leading him to develop a revulsion toward other human beings.{{sfn|Gibson|2017|pp=84–5}}{{sfn|Jan|Firdaus|2004|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=diLPYfA--XMC&pg=PA115 115]}} [[Ebenezer Scrooge]] from [[Charles Dickens]]'s ''[[A Christmas Carol]]'' is an often-cited example of misanthropy. He is described as a cold-hearted, solitary miser who detests Christmas. He is greedy, selfish, and has no regard for the well-being of others.{{sfn|Moore|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=lfmqz6ybAVEC&pg=PA16 16]}}{{sfn|Pirson|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3YswDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA58 58]}}{{sfn|Cornog|1998|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=cyD059eY2RYC&pg=PA357 357]}} Other writers associated with misanthropy include [[Gustave Flaubert]] and [[Philip Larkin]].{{sfn|Steegmuller|1982|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vFzQdS8N_5IC&pg=PR14 xiv]}}{{sfn|Raban|1992}}

[[The Joker]] from the [[DC Universe]] is an example of misanthropy in popular culture. He is one of the main antagonists of [[Batman]] and acts as an agent of chaos. He believes that people are selfish, cruel, irrational, and hypocritical. He is usually portrayed as a [[sociopath]] with a twisted sense of humor who uses violent means to expose and bring down organized society.{{sfn|Lee|Bird|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pHwCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA164 164]}}{{sfn|Donohoo|2023}}{{sfn|Bolus|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7bamDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA24 24]}}