Editing Marcus Garvey (section)

===The growth of UNIA: 1918–1921===

UNIA membership grew rapidly in 1918.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=117}} In June that year it was [[Incorporation (business)|incorporated]],{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=43|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2p=117}} and in July a commercial arm, the African Communities' League, filed for incorporation.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=117}} Garvey envisioned UNIA establishing an import-and-export business, a restaurant, and a laundry.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=117}} He also proposed raising the funds to secure a permanent building as a base for the group.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=117}} In April, Garvey launched a weekly newspaper, the ''[[Negro World]]'',{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=135}} which Edmund David Cronon later noted remained "the personal propaganda organ of its founder".{{sfn|Cronon|1955|p=46}} Financially, the ''Negro World'' was backed by philanthropists such as [[Madam C. J. Walker]],{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=138}} but six months after its launch was pursuing a special appeal for donations to keep it afloat.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=137}}

Various journalists took Garvey to court for his failure to pay them for their contributions, a fact much publicized by rival publications;{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=138}} at the time, there were more than 400 black-run newspapers and magazines in the U.S.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=136}} Unlike many of these, Garvey refused to feature adverts for [[Skin whitening|skin-lightening]] and [[Hair straightening|hair-straightening]] products,{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=48|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2p=139}} urging black people to "take the kinks out of your mind, instead of out of your hair".{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=139}} By the end of its first year, the circulation of ''Negro World'' was nearing 10,000;{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=138}} copies circulated not only in the U.S., but also in the Caribbean, Central, and South America.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=148}} Several [[British West Indies|British West Indian]] islands banned the publication.{{sfn|Elkins|1972|p=64}}

[[File:NegroWorld-July31-1920.jpg|thumb|upright|In 1918, Garvey's [[UNIA]] began publishing the ''[[Negro World]]'' newspaper.]]
Garvey appointed his old friend Domingo, who had also arrived in New York City, as the newspaper's editor.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=143}} However, Domingo's [[socialism|socialist]] views alarmed Garvey, who feared that they would imperil UNIA.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=153}} Garvey had Domingo brought before UNIA's nine-person executive committee, where the latter was accused of writing editorials professing ideas at odds with UNIA's message. Domingo resigned several months later; he and Garvey henceforth became enemies.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=154}} In September 1918, Amy Ashwood sailed from Panama to be with Garvey, arriving in New York City in October.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=146}} In November, she became General Secretary of UNIA.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=147}} At UNIA gatherings, she was responsible for reciting black-authored poetry, as was the actress [[Henrietta Vinton Davis]], who had also joined the movement.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=166}}

After the First World War ended, President [[Woodrow Wilson]] declared his intention to present a 14-point plan for world peace at the [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919|forthcoming Paris Peace Conference]]. Garvey joined various African Americans in forming the [[International League for Darker People]], a group that sought to lobby Wilson and the conference to give greater respect to the wishes of people of color; their delegates nevertheless were unable to secure the travel documentation.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=128, 174}} At Garvey's prompting, UNIA sent a young Haitian, [[Eliezer Cadet]], as its delegate to the conference.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=172}} Despite these efforts, the political leaders who met in Paris largely ignored the perspectives of non-European peoples, instead reaffirming their support for continued European colonial rule.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=177–178, 182}}

In the U.S., many African Americans who had served in the military refused to return to their more subservient role in society and throughout 1919 there were various racial clashes throughout the country.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=122–123}} The government feared that African Americans would be encouraged toward revolutionary behavior following the [[October Revolution]] in Russia,{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=125}} and in this context, military intelligence ordered Major [[Walter Loving]] to investigate Garvey.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=126–127}} Loving's report concluded that Garvey was a "very able young man" who was disseminating "clever propaganda".{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=158}} The Bureau of Investigation's [[J. Edgar Hoover]] decided that Garvey was politically subversive and should be deported from the U.S., adding his name to the list of those to be targeted in the forthcoming [[Palmer Raids]]. To ratify the deportation, the Bureau of Investigation presented Garvey's name to the [[United States Department of Labor|Labor Department]] under [[Louis F. Post]]; however, Post's department refused to do so, stating that the case against Garvey was not proven.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=157}}

====Success and obstacles====
[[File:Marcus Garvey speaking at Liberty Hall, Harlem, 1920.png|thumb|upright|Garvey speaking at Liberty Hall, Harlem, in 1920]]
UNIA grew rapidly and in just over 18 months it had branches in 25 U.S. states, as well as divisions in the West Indies, Central America, and West Africa.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=164}} The exact membership is not known, although Garvey—who often exaggerated numbers—claimed that by June 1919 it had two million members.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=164}} It remained smaller than the better established [[National Association for the Advancement of Colored People]] (NAACP),{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=164}} although there was some crossover in membership of the two groups.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=299}} The NAACP and UNIA differed in their approach; while the NAACP was a multi-racial organization which promoted racial integration, UNIA had a black-only membership policy. The NAACP focused its attention on what it termed the "[[The Talented Tenth|talented tenth]]" of the African-American population, such as doctors, lawyers, and teachers, whereas UNIA included many poorer people and Afro-Caribbean migrants in its ranks, seeking to project an image of itself as a mass organization.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=165}} To promote his views to a wide audience, Garvey took to shouting slogans from a megaphone as he was driven through Harlem in a [[Cadillac]].{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=174}}

There were tensions between UNIA and the NAACP and the latter's supporters accused Garvey of stymieing their efforts at bringing about racial integration in the U.S.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=303}} Garvey was dismissive of the NAACP leader [[W. E. B. Du Bois]], and in one issue of the ''Negro World'' called him a "reactionary under [the] pay of white men".{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=181–182}} Du Bois generally tried to ignore Garvey,{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=223}} regarding him as a [[demagoguery|demagogue]],{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=326}} but at the same time wanted to learn all he could about Garvey's movement.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=248}} In 1921, Garvey twice reached out to Du Bois, asking him to contribute to UNIA publications, but the offer was rebuffed.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=302–303}} Their relationship became acrimonious; in 1923, Du Bois described Garvey as "a little fat black man, ugly but with intelligent eyes and big head".{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=298}} By 1924, historian [[Colin Grant (author)|Colin Grant]] has suggested, the two hated each other.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=298}}

UNIA established a restaurant and ice cream parlor at 56 West 135th Street,{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=155}} and also launched a millinery store selling hats.{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=61|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2p=186}} With an increased income coming in through UNIA, Garvey moved to a new residence at 238 West 131st Street;{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=165}} in 1919, a young middle-class Jamaican migrant, [[Amy Jacques Garvey|Amy Jacques]], became his personal secretary.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=210–212}} UNIA also obtained a partly-constructed church building at 114 West 138 Street in Harlem, which Garvey named "Liberty Hall" after [[Liberty Hall|its namesake]] in [[Dublin]], Ireland, which had been established during the [[Easter Rising]] of 1916.{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=49|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2p=197}} The adoption of this name reflected Garvey's fascination with the [[Irish War of Independence|Irish independence movement]].{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=197}} Liberty Hall's dedication ceremony was held in July 1919.{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=49|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2p=198}} During the [[hunger strike]] of [[Terence MacSwiney]], Garvey supported [[solidarity strike]]s in support of MacSwiney{{sfn|Silvestri|2009|p=32}} and made appeals to the British government on his behalf.{{sfn|Dooley|1998|p=119}}

Garvey also organized the African Legion, a group of uniformed men who would attend UNIA parades;{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=219}} a secret service was formed from Legion members, providing Garvey with intelligence about group members.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=360}} The formation of the Legion further concerned the Bureau of Investigation, who sent their first full-time black agent, [[James Wormley Jones]], to infiltrate UNIA.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=219–220}}
In January 1920, Garvey incorporated the [[Negro Factories Corporation|Negro Factories League]],{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=60|2a1=Fierce|2y=1972|2p=56|3a1=Grant|3y=2008|3p=230}} through which he opened a string of grocery stores, a restaurant, a steam laundry, and publishing house.{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=60|2a1=Fierce|2y=1972|2pp=56–57}}
According to Grant, a [[personality cult]] had grown up around Garvey within the UNIA movement;{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=234}} life-size portraits of him hung in the UNIA headquarters and phonograph records of his speeches were sold to the membership.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=345}}

[[File:UNIA parade in Harlem, 1920.jpg|thumb|A UNIA parade through Harlem in 1920]]

In August 1920, UNIA organized the First International Conference of the Negro Peoples in Harlem.{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=62|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2pp=242–243}} This parade was attended by Gabriel Johnson, the Mayor of [[Monrovia]] in Liberia.{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=69|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2p=243}} As part of it, an estimated 25,000 people assembled in [[Madison Square Gardens]].{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=245}} At the conference, UNIA delegates declared Garvey to be the Provisional President of Africa, charged with heading a [[government-in-exile]] that could take power in the continent when European colonial rule ended via [[decolonization]].{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=67|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2p=243}} Some of the West Africans attending the event were angered by this, believing it wrong that an Afro-Jamaican, rather than a native African, was taking this role.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=262}}

Many outside the movement ridiculed Garvey for giving himself this title.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=243}} The conference then elected other members of the African government-in-exile,{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=67|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2p=266}} resulting in the production of a "Declaration of the Rights of the Negro Peoples of the World" which condemned European colonial rule across Africa.{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=66|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2p=261|3a1=Fergus|3y=2010|3p=36}} In August 1921, UNIA held a banquet in Liberty Hall, at which Garvey gave out honors to various supporters, including such titles as the [[Order of the Nile]] and the Order of Ethiopia.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=315–317}}

UNIA established growing links with the Liberian government, hoping to secure land in the West African nation on which it could settle African-American migrants.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=276}} Liberia was in heavy debt, with UNIA launching a fundraising campaign to raise $2 million towards a Liberian Construction Loan.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=276}} In 1921, Garvey sent a UNIA team to assess the prospects of mass African-American settlement in Liberia.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=281}}
Internally, UNIA experienced various feuds. Garvey pushed out [[Cyril Briggs]] and other members of the [[African Blood Brotherhood]] from UNIA, wanting to place growing distance between himself and black socialist groups.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=311–313}} In the ''Negro World'', Garvey then accused Briggs—who was of mixed heritage—of being a white man posing as a black man. Briggs successfully sued Garvey for criminal libel.{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=75|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2pp=312–313}} This was not the only time he faced this charge; in July 1919, Garvey had been arrested for comments in the ''Negro World'' about [[Edwin P. Kilroe]], the Assistant District Attorney in the District Attorney's office of the County of New York.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=199}} When this case eventually came to court, the court ordered Garvey to provide a printed retraction.{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=75|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2pp=254–255}}

====Assassination attempt, marriage, and divorce====

In October 1919, George Tyler, a part-time vendor of the ''Negro World'', entered the UNIA office and told Garvey that Kilroe "had sent him" and tried to assassinate Garvey. Garvey was shot at four times with a .38-calibre revolver, and received two bullets in his right leg and scalp but survived. Tyler was soon apprehended but committed suicide by leaping from the third-tier of the Harlem jail; it was never revealed why he tried to kill Garvey.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.harlemworldmagazine.com/marcus-garvey-in-his-harlem-office-1914/ | title=Marcus Garvey in His Harlem Office, 1914 – Harlem World Magazine | work=Harlem World Magazine | date=3 November 2013 | author1=Cass }}</ref>{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=212–214}} Garvey soon recovered from his wounds; five days later he gave a public speech in [[Philadelphia]].{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=214}} After the assassination attempt, Garvey hired a bodyguard, Marcellus Strong.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=218}}

{{listen|filename=Marcus Garvey, speech, 1921.ogg|left|title="Explanation of the Objects of the Universal Negro Improvement Association"|description=Complete 1921 speech|type=speech}}

Shortly after the incident, Garvey proposed marriage to Amy Ashwood and she accepted.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=224}} On [[Christmas Day]], they had a private [[Marriage in the Catholic Church|Catholic wedding]], followed by a major ceremonial celebration in Liberty Hall, attended by 3000 UNIA members.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=225}} Jacques was Ashwood's [[maid of honor]].{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=224}} After the wedding, Garvey moved into Ashwood's apartment.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=236}} The newlyweds embarked on a two-week honeymoon in Canada, accompanied by a small UNIA retinue, including Jacques. There, Garvey spoke at two mass meetings in [[Montreal]] and three in [[Toronto]].{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=226}} After their return to Harlem, the couple's marriage was soon strained. Ashwood complained of Garvey's growing closeness with Jacques.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=236}} Garvey was upset by his inability to control his wife, particularly her drinking and her socializing with other men.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=236–238}} She was pregnant, although the child was possibly not his; she did not inform him of this, and the pregnancy ended in miscarriage.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=238}}

Three months into the marriage, Garvey sought an annulment, on the basis of Ashwood's alleged adultery and the claim that she had used "fraud and concealment" to induce the marriage.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=238–239}} She launched a counter-claim for desertion, requesting $75-a-week alimony. The court rejected this sum, instead ordering Garvey to pay her $12 a week. It refused to grant him the divorce.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=239}} The court proceedings continued for two years.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=239}} Now separated, Garvey moved into a 129th Street apartment with Jacques and [[Henrietta Vinton Davis]], an arrangement that at the time could have caused some social controversy.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=240}} He was later joined there by his sister Indiana and her husband, Alfred Peart.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=278}} Ashwood, meanwhile, went on to become a lyricist and musical director for musicals amid the [[Harlem Renaissance]].{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=257}}

====The Black Star Line====

{{Quote box
| quote = Black Star Line was organized for the industrial, commercial and economic development of the race to carry out the program of U.N.I.A., that is to have ships to link up
the Negro peoples of the world in commercial trade and in fraternities.
| source=— ''The Negro World''{{sfn|Fierce|1972|p=54}}
| align = left
| width = 25em
}}

From 56 West 135th Street, UNIA also began selling shares for a new business, the [[Black Star Line]].{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=155}} Seeking to challenge white domination of the maritime industry,{{sfn|Fierce|1972|p=54}} the Black Star Line based its name on the [[White Star Line]].{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=187}} Garvey envisioned a shipping and passenger line traveling between Africa and the Americas, which would be black-owned, black-staffed, and utilized by black patrons.{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1pp=50–51|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2p=187}} He thought that the project could be launched by raising $2 million from African-American donors,{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=188}} publicly declaring that any black person who did not buy stock in the company "will be worse than a traitor to the cause of struggling Ethiopia".{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=210}}

Garvey incorporated the company and then set about trying to purchase a ship.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=192–193}} Many African Americans took great pride in buying company stock, seeing it as an investment in their community's future;{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=194}} Garvey also promised that when the company began turning a profit they would receive significant financial returns on their investment.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=195}} To advertise this stock, he traveled to Virginia,{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=195}} and then in September 1919 to Chicago, where he was accompanied by seven other UNIA members. In Chicago, he was arrested and fined for violating the [[Blue Sky Laws]] that banned the sale of stock in the city without a license.{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=76|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2pp=207–210}}

With growing quantities of money coming in, a three-man auditing committee was established, which found that UNIA's funds were poorly recorded and that the company's books were not balanced.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=190–191}} This was followed by a breakdown in trust between the directors of the Black Star Line, with Garvey discharging two of them, Richard E. Warner and Edgar M. Grey, and publicly humiliating them at the next UNIA meeting.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=195–197}} People continued buying stock regardless and by September 1919, the Black Star Line company had accumulated $50,000 (${{formatnum:{{Inflation|US|50000|1919|r=-4}}}} in current dollar terms) by selling stock. It could thus afford a thirty-year-old [[tramp ship]], the [[SS Yarmouth|SS ''Yarmouth'']].{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=53|2a1=Fierce|2y=1972|2p=55|3a1=Grant|3y=2008|3pp=204–205}} The ship was formally launched in a ceremony on the [[Hudson River]] on 31 October.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=215}} The company had been unable to find enough trained black seamen to staff the ship, so its initial chief engineer and chief officer were white.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=222}}

[[File:Black Star Line Stock Certificate.jpg|thumb|A certificate for stock of the Black Star Line]]

The ship's first assignment was to sail to Cuba and then to Jamaica, before returning to New York.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=217, 225}} After that first voyage, the ''Yarmouth'' was found to contain many problems and the Black Star Line had to pay $11,000 for repairs.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=227}} On its second voyage, again to the Caribbean, it hit bad weather shortly after departure and had to be towed back to New York by the coastguard for further repairs.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=228}}
Garvey planned to obtain and launch a second ship by February 1920,{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=223}} with the Black Star Line putting down a $10,000 (${{formatnum:{{Inflation|US|10000|1920|r=-4}}}} in current dollar terms) [[down payment|deposit]] on a paddle ship called the [[Shady Side (steamboat)|SS ''Shady Side'']].{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=57|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2p=233}} In July 1920, Garvey sacked both the Black Star Line's secretary, [[Edward D. Smith-Green]], and its captain, Joshua Cockburn; the latter was accused of corruption.{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=81|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2p=241}} In early 1922, the ''Yarmouth'' was sold for scrap metal, bringing the Black Star Line less than a hundredth of its original purchase price.{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=84|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2p=321}} The worn-out steamboat ''Shady Side'' was abandoned on the mud flats at Fort Lee, New Jersey, in the fall of 1922, when the Black Star Line collapsed.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/35470447 |title=4 Apr 1939, Page 4 – The Kingston Daily Freeman at |publisher=Newspapers.com |date=1939-04-04 |access-date=2022-07-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3042340 | jstor=3042340 | title=The Black Star Line: The De-Mystification of Marcus Garvey | last1=Harrison | first1=Paul Carter | journal=African American Review | year=1997 | volume=31 | issue=4 | pages=713–716 | doi=10.2307/3042340 }}</ref>

In 1921, Garvey traveled to the Caribbean aboard a Black Star Line ship, the newly-acquired {{SS|Antonio Maceo||2}}.{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1pp=85, 88|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2pp=284–285}} While in Jamaica, he criticized its inhabitants as being backward and claimed that "Negroes are the most lazy, the most careless and indifferent people in the world".{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=289}} His comments in Jamaica earned many enemies, who criticized him on multiple fronts, including the fact he had left his destitute father to die in an almshouse.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=289–290}} Attacks back-and-forth between Garvey and his critics appeared in the letters published by ''The Gleaner''.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=290}}

From Jamaica, Garvey traveled to Costa Rica, where the [[United Fruit Company]] assisted his transportation around the country, hoping to gain his favor. There, he met with President [[Julio Acosta García|Julio Acosta]].{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=88|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2pp=292–293}} Arriving in Panama, at one of his first speeches, in [[Almirante, Bocas del Toro|Almirante]], he was booed after doubling the advertised entry price; his response was to call the crowd "a bunch of ignorant and impertinent Negroes. No wonder you are where you are and for my part you can stay where you are."{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=293–294}} He received a far warmer reception at [[Panama City]],{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=294–295}} after which he sailed to Kingston. From there he sought a return to the U.S., but was repeatedly denied an entry visa. This was granted only after he wrote directly to the [[United States Department of State|State Department]].{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1pp=89, 91|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2pp=295–296}}