Editing Manta ray (section)

===Lifecycle===
[[File:Manta alfredi maldives.jpg|thumb|left|''M. alfredi'' group in the [[Maldives]]]]

Mating takes place at different times of the year in different parts of the manta's range. Courtship is difficult to observe in this fast-swimming fish, although mating "trains" with multiple individuals swimming closely behind each other are sometimes seen in shallow water. These mating trains often consist of multiple male rays simultaneously pursuing an individual female. <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Deakos |first=MH |last2=Baker |first2=JD |last3=Bejder |first3=L |date=2011-05-16 |title=Characteristics of a manta ray Manta alfredi population off Maui, Hawaii, and implications for management |url=https://doi.org/10.3354/meps09085 |journal=Marine Ecology Progress Series |volume=429 |pages=245–260 |doi=10.3354/meps09085 |issn=0171-8630}}</ref>The mating sequence may be triggered by a [[full moon]] and seems to be initiated by a male following closely behind a female while she travels at around {{convert|10|km/h|abbr=on}}. He makes repeated efforts to grasp her pectoral fin with his mouth, which may take 20 to 30 minutes. Once he has a tight grip, he turns upside-down and presses his ventral side against hers. He then inserts one of his [[clasper]]s into her [[cloaca]], where it remains for 60–90 seconds.<ref name=Yano/> The claspers form a tube and a [[siphon]] propels [[semen]] from the [[genital papilla]] into the [[oviduct]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.biodiversityexplorer.org/chondrichthyes/reproduction.htm |title=Reproduction in cartilaginous fish |author1=Compagno, Leonard J. V. |author2=Ebert, David A. |author3=Smale, Malcolm J. |year=2008 |work=Biodiversity Explorer |publisher=Iziko Museums of Cape Town |access-date=February 12, 2013 |archive-date=19 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130619153042/http://www.biodiversityexplorer.org/chondrichthyes/reproduction.htm }}</ref><ref name=Guide/>{{rp|41–42}} The male continues to grip the female's pectoral fin with his teeth for a further few minutes as both continue to swim, often followed by up to 20 other males. The pair then parts, the female being left with scars on her fin.<ref name=Yano>{{cite journal |author1=Yano, K. |author2=Sato, F. |author3=Takahashi, T. |year=1999 |title=Observations of mating behavior of the manta ray, ''Manta birostris'', at the Ogasawara Islands, Japan |journal=Ichthyological Research |volume=46 |issue=3 |doi=10.1007/BF02678515 |pages=289–296|bibcode=1999IchtR..46..289Y |s2cid=46133983 }}</ref><ref name=Guide/>{{rp|46}}

The fertilized eggs develop within the female's oviduct. At first, they are enclosed in an egg case while the developing [[embryo]]s absorb the yolk. After hatching, the pups remain in the oviduct and receive additional nutrition from milky secretions called [[Histotrophy|histotroph]].<ref name=Marshall/> With no [[umbilical cord]] or [[placenta]], the unborn pup relies on [[buccal pumping]] to obtain oxygen.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1098/rsbl.2012.0288 |author1=Tomita, T. |author2=Toda, M. |author3=Ueda, K. |author4=Uchida, S. |author5=Nakaya, K. | title = Live-bearing manta ray: how the embryo acquires oxygen without placenta and umbilical cord| journal = Biology Letters| volume =8 | issue = 5| pages =721–724 | year= 2012 | pmid = 22675137 | pmc = 3440971}}</ref> Brood size is usually one or occasionally two. The [[gestation period]] is thought to be 12–13 months. When fully developed, the pup resembles a miniature adult and is expelled from the oviduct with no further parental care. In wild populations, an interval of two years between births may be normal, but a few individuals become pregnant in consecutive years, demonstrating an annual ovulatory cycle.<ref name=Marshall>{{cite journal |author1=Marshall, A. D. |author2=Bennett, M. B. |year=2010 |title=Reproductive ecology of the reef manta ray ''Manta alfredi'' in southern Mozambique |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |volume=77 |issue=1 |pages=185–186 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.2010.02669.x |pmid=20646146|bibcode=2010JFBio..77..169M }}</ref> The [[Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium]] has had some success in breeding ''M. alfredi'', with one female giving birth in three successive years. In one of these pregnancies, the gestation period was 372 days and at birth the pup had a width of {{convert|192|cm|abbr=on}} and weight of {{convert|70|kg|abbr=on}}.<ref name=iucn2>{{cite web|url=http://www.iucnredlist.org/pdflink.8969079 |title=''Manta alfredi'', Reef Manta Ray |author=Marshall, A. |author2=Kashiwagi, T. |author3=Bennett, M. B. |author4=Deakos, M. |author5=Stevens, G. |author6=McGregor, F. |author7=Clark, T. |author8=Ishihara, H. |author9=Sato, K. |name-list-style=amp|page=7|date=2008|work=The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species|access-date=February 11, 2017}}</ref> In Indonesia, ''M. birostris'' males appear to mature at {{convert|3.75|m|0|abbr=on}}, while female mature around {{convert|4|m|0|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=White, W. T. |author2=Giles, J. |author3=Dharmadi |author4=Potter, I. |year=2006|title=Data on the bycatch fishery and reproductive biology of mobulid rays (Myliobatiformes) in Indonesia|journal=Fisheries Research|volume=82|issue=1–3|pages=65–73|doi=10.1016/j.fishres.2006.08.008|bibcode=2006FishR..82...65W }}</ref> In the [[Maldives]], males of ''M. alfredi'' mature at a width of {{convert|2.5|m|abbr=on}}, while females mature at {{convert|3|m|abbr=on}}.<ref name=iucn/> In [[Hawaii]], ''M. alfredi'' matures at a width of {{convert|2.8|m|abbr=on}} for males and {{convert|3.4|m|abbr=on}} for females.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Deakos, M.|year=2010|title=Paired-laser photogrammetry as a simple and accurate system for measuring the body size of free-ranging manta rays Manta ''alfredi''|journal=Aquatic Biology|volume=10|issue=1 |pages=1–10|doi=10.3354/ab00258|doi-access=free|bibcode=2010AquaB..10....1D }}</ref> Female mantas appear to mature at 8–10 years.<ref name=iucn/><ref name="IUCN"/> Manta rays may live as long as 50 years.<ref name=glance>{{cite web |url=http://www.mantatrust.org/about-mantas/mantas-at-a-glance/ |title=Mantas at a glance |year=2013 |publisher=The Manta Trust |access-date=February 16, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130103083708/http://www.mantatrust.org/about-mantas/mantas-at-a-glance/ |archive-date=January 3, 2013  }}</ref>