Editing Madagascar (section)

==Geography==
{{Main|Geography of Madagascar|Geology of Madagascar}}
[[File:Madagascar topo.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Land coverage (left) and topographical (right) maps of Madagascar]]
At {{convert|592800|km2}},<ref name="BGNote"/> Madagascar is the world's 46th [[List of countries and dependencies by area|largest country]],<ref name="cia">{{cite web |author=Central Intelligence Agency |author-link=CIA |publisher=[[The World Factbook]] |title=Madagascar |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/madagascar/ |year=2011 |access-date=24 August 2011 |archive-date=14 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210214064652/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/madagascar/ |url-status=live }}</ref> the second-largest [[List of island countries|island country]]<ref name="world-atlas">{{cite web|url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/which-are-the-island-countries-of-the-world.html |title=Island Countries of the World |publisher=WorldAtlas.com |access-date=10 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171207094959/http://www.worldatlas.com/articles/which-are-the-island-countries-of-the-world.html | archive-date=7 December 2017}}</ref> and the [[list of islands by area|fourth-largest island]].<ref name="BGNote" /> The country lies mostly between latitudes [[12th parallel south|12°S]] and [[26th parallel south|26°S]], and longitudes [[43rd meridian east|43°E]] and [[51st meridian east|51°E]].<ref name="georeport">Moriarty (1891), pp. 1–2</ref> Neighboring islands include the French territory of [[Réunion]] and the country of [[Mauritius]] to the east, as well as the state of [[Comoros]] and the French territory of [[Mayotte]] to the north west. The nearest mainland state is [[Mozambique]], located to the west.

The prehistoric breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana resulted in the separation of East Gondwana (comprising Madagascar, Antarctica, Australia and the Indian subcontinent) and West Gondwana (Africa–South America) during the [[Jurassic]] period, around 185&nbsp;million years ago. The Indo-Madagascar landmass separated from Antarctica and Australia around 125 million years ago<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Reeves|first=Colin V.|date=February 2018|title=The development of the East African margin during Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous times: a perspective from global tectonics|url=http://pg.lyellcollection.org/lookup/doi/10.1144/petgeo2017-021|journal=Petroleum Geoscience|language=en|volume=24|issue=1|pages=41–56|doi=10.1144/petgeo2017-021|bibcode=2018PetGe..24...41R |s2cid=133869410|issn=1354-0793|access-date=6 December 2021|archive-date=3 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220303033237/https://pg.lyellcollection.org/content/24/1/41|url-status=live}}</ref> and Madagascar separated from the Indian landmass about 84–92&nbsp;million years ago during the Late [[Cretaceous]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Torsvik|first1=T.H.|last2=Tucker|first2=R.D.|last3=Ashwal|first3=L.D.|last4=Carter|first4=L.M.|last5=Jamtveit|first5=B.|last6=Vidyadharan|first6=K.T.|last7=Venkataramana|first7=P.|date=October 2000|title=Late Cretaceous India-Madagascar fit and timing of break-up related magmatism|journal=Terra Nova|language=en|volume=12|issue=5|pages=220–224|doi=10.1046/j.1365-3121.2000.00300.x|bibcode=2000TeNov..12..220T|s2cid=128896193}}</ref> This long history of separation from other continents has allowed plants and animals on the island to evolve in relative isolation. Along the length of the eastern coast runs a narrow and steep [[escarpment]] containing much of the island's remaining tropical [[Madagascar lowland forests|lowland forest]]. To the west of this ridge lies a [[plateau]] in the center of the island ranging in altitude from {{convert|750|to|1500|m|ft|-1|abbr=on}} above sea level. These [[Central Highlands (Madagascar)|central highlands]], traditionally the homeland of the [[Merina people]] and the location of their historic capital at [[Antananarivo]], are the most densely populated part of the island and are characterized by terraced, rice-growing valleys lying between grassy hills and patches of the [[Madagascar subhumid forests|subhumid forests]] that formerly covered the highland region. To the west of the highlands, the increasingly arid terrain gradually slopes down to the [[Mozambique Channel]] and [[Madagascar mangroves|mangrove swamps]] along the coast.<ref name=endemicstats>{{cite journal|vauthors=Vences M, Wollenberg KC, Vieites DR, Lees DC |title = Madagascar as a model region of species diversification |journal = Trends in Ecology and Evolution |volume = 24 |issue = 8 |pages = 456–465 |date = June 2009 |doi = 10.1016/j.tree.2009.03.011 |url = http://www.mvences.de/p/p1/Vences_A163.pdf |access-date=11 February 2012 |archive-date = 9 May 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130509070414/http://www.mvences.de/p/p1/Vences_A163.pdf |pmid = 19500874|bibcode = 2009TEcoE..24..456V }}</ref>

Madagascar's highest peaks rise from three prominent highland [[massif]]s: [[Maromokotro]] {{convert|2876|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} in the [[Tsaratanana Massif]] is the island's highest point, followed by Boby Peak {{convert|2658|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} in the [[Andringitra Massif]], and Tsiafajavona {{convert|2643|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} in the [[Ankaratra]] Massif. To the east, the ''[[Canal des Pangalanes]]'' is a chain of human-made and natural lakes connected by canals built by the French just inland from the east coast and running parallel to it for some {{convert|600|km|mi|-1|abbr=on}}.<ref name=EBLand/>

The western and southern sides, which lie in the [[rain shadow]] of the central highlands, are home to [[Madagascar dry deciduous forests|dry deciduous forests]], [[Madagascar spiny forests|spiny forests]], and [[deserts and xeric shrublands]]. Due to their lower population densities, Madagascar's dry deciduous forests have been better preserved than the eastern rain forests or the original woodlands of the central plateau. The western coast features many protected harbors, but silting is a major problem caused by sediment from the high levels of inland erosion carried by rivers crossing the broad western plains.<ref name=EBLand>{{cite encyclopedia |last = Encyclopædia Britannica|title = Madagascar |encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher = Eb.com |year = 2011 |url = https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/355562/Madagascar |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111219010104/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/355562/Madagascar |archive-date = 19 December 2011 |url-status=live|access-date =25 August 2011}}</ref>

===Climate===
[[File:Koppen-Geiger Map MDG present.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|A [[Köppen climate classification]] map of Madagascar]]
{{See also|Geography of Madagascar#Climate}}
The combination of southeastern [[trade winds]] and northwestern [[monsoon]]s produces a hot rainy season (November–April) with frequently destructive [[cyclone]]s, and a relatively cooler dry season (May–October). Rain clouds originating over the Indian Ocean discharge much of their moisture over the island's eastern coast; the heavy precipitation supports the area's [[rainforest]] ecosystem. The central highlands are both drier and cooler while the west is drier still, and a [[semi-arid climate]] prevails in the southwest and southern interior of the island.<ref name=endemicstats/>
 
[[Tropical cyclone]]s cause damage to infrastructure and local economies as well as loss of life.<ref name="LOC">{{cite web|last = Metz |first = Helen Chapin |author-link = Helen Chapin Metz |year = 1994 |title = Library of Congress Country Studies: Madagascar |url=http://countrystudies.us/madagascar/ |access-date =1 February 2011 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20051109090930/http://countrystudies.us/madagascar/ |url-status=dead |archive-date = 9 November 2005}}</ref> In 2004, [[Cyclone Gafilo]] became the strongest cyclone ever recorded to hit Madagascar. The storm killed 172 people, left 214,260 homeless<ref name=gafilo>{{cite web|author= International Federation of Red Cross And Red Crescent Societies |publisher=ReliefWeb|date=25 February 2005|access-date=31 March 2011|title=Madagascar: Cyclone Gafilo, Final Report, Appeal 08/04|url=http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/db900sid/DDAD-69XMQW?OpenDocument&rc=1&emid=2004-0103 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130830093808/http://reliefweb.int/report/madagascar/madagascar-cyclone-gafilo-final-report-appeal-0804 |url-status=live |archive-date = 30 August 2013}}</ref> and caused more than US$250&nbsp;million in damage.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite web|author= Integrated Regional Information Networks|publisher=ReliefWeb|date=2 July 2004|access-date=9 September 2012|title= Madagascar: Saving the children from Gafilo's aftermath |url=http://reliefweb.int/report/madagascar/madagascar-saving-children-gafilos-aftermath |archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20140226232225/http://reliefweb.int/report/madagascar/madagascar-saving-children-gafilos-aftermath |url-status=live|archive-date = 26 February 2014}}</ref> In February 2022, [[Cyclone Batsirai]] killed 121 people,<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite web|date=2022-02-15|title=Southern Africa: Cyclone Season Flash Update No. 6 (Tropical Cyclone Batsirai) (13 February 2022) - Madagascar|url=https://reliefweb.int/report/madagascar/southern-africa-cyclone-season-flash-update-no-6-tropical-cyclone-batsirai-13|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20220215102344/https://reliefweb.int/report/madagascar/southern-africa-cyclone-season-flash-update-no-6-tropical-cyclone-batsirai-13|archive-date=2022-02-15|access-date=2022-02-15|website=ReliefWeb|language=en}}</ref> weeks after [[Tropical_Storm_Ana_(2022)|Cyclone Ana]] killed 55 and displaced 130,000 people on the island.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Rabary |first1=Lovasoa |title=Cyclone kills at least 10 in Madagascar, destroying homes and cutting power |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/least-three-dead-after-cyclone-batsirai-causes-devastation-southeast-madagascar-2022-02-06/ |work=Reuters |date=6 February 2022 |language=en |access-date=7 February 2022 |archive-date=6 February 2022 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220206233516/https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/least-three-dead-after-cyclone-batsirai-causes-devastation-southeast-madagascar-2022-02-06/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

A 2022 analysis found that the expected costs for Madagascar, to adapt to and avert the environmental consequences of [[Climate change in Madagascar|climate change]], are going to be high.<ref>{{cite web |last=Laville |first=Sandra |date=2022-07-13 |title=Climate adaptation bill for African countries to dwarf health spending |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/jul/13/climate-adaptation-bill-african-countries-dwarf-health-spending |access-date=2022-07-14 |website=The Guardian |language=en |archive-date=12 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220912120732/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/jul/13/climate-adaptation-bill-african-countries-dwarf-health-spending |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Biodiversity and conservation===
{{Main|Wildlife of Madagascar|Flora of Madagascar|Fauna of Madagascar|Agriculture in Madagascar|Ecoregions of Madagascar|List of World Heritage Sites in Madagascar|Deforestation in Madagascar|Illegal logging in Madagascar|}}
[[Image:Angraecum sesquipedale Orchi 4.jpg|thumb|Comet orchid (''[[Angraecum sesquipedale]]''), the flowers of this orchid have a very long spur and are pollinated by a species of [[Sphingidae|hawkmoth]] with a proboscis of matching length.]]
As a result of the island's long isolation from neighbouring continents, Madagascar is home to various [[endemic]] plants and animals found nowhere else on Earth.<ref name=CIHotSpot/><ref name=tattersall>{{cite book|last=Tattersall|first=Ian|title=Origin of the Malagasy Strepshirhine Primates|year=2006|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-0-387-34585-7|pages=1–6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nsBtrhsMU5EC&pg=PA3|access-date=14 October 2015|archive-date=6 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170406113920/https://books.google.com/books?id=nsBtrhsMU5EC&pg=PA3|url-status=live}}</ref> Approximately 90% of all plant and animal species found in Madagascar are [[endemism|endemic]].<ref>Hobbes & Dolan (2008), p. 517</ref> This distinctive ecology has led some ecologists to refer to Madagascar as the "eighth continent",<ref>Hillstrom & Collier Hillstrom (2003), p. 50</ref> and the island has been classified by [[Conservation International]] as a biodiversity hotspot.<ref name=CIHotSpot>{{cite web |last=Conservation International |title=Madagascar and the Indian Ocean Islands |work=Biodiversity Hotspots |publisher=Conservation International |year=2007 |url=http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/hotspots/madagascar/pages/biodiversity.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110824110451/http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/Hotspots/madagascar/Pages/biodiversity.aspx |archive-date = 24 August 2011 |url-status=dead |access-date = 24 August 2011 }}</ref> Madagascar is classed as one of 17 [[megadiverse countries]]. The country is home to seven terrestrial ecoregions: [[Madagascar lowland forests]], [[Madagascar subhumid forests]], [[Madagascar dry deciduous forests]], [[Madagascar ericoid thickets]], [[Madagascar spiny forests]], [[Madagascar succulent woodlands]], and [[Madagascar mangroves]].<ref name="DinersteinOlson2017">{{cite journal |last1=Dinerstein |first1=Eric |last2=Olson |first2=David |last3=Joshi |first3=Anup |last4=Vynne |first4=Carly |last5=Burgess |first5=Neil D. |last6=Wikramanayake |first6=Eric |last7=Hahn |first7=Nathan |last8=Palminteri |first8=Suzanne |last9=Hedao |first9=Prashant |last10=Noss |first10=Reed |last11=Hansen |first11=Matt |last12=Locke |first12=Harvey |last13=Ellis |first13=Erle C. |last14=Jones |first14=Benjamin |last15=Barber |first15=Charles Victor |last16=Hayes |first16=Randy |last17=Kormos |first17=Cyril |last18=Martin |first18=Vance |last19=Crist |first19=Eileen |last20=Sechrest |first20=Wes |last21=Price |first21=Lori |last22=Baillie |first22=Jonathan E. M. |last23=Weeden |first23=Don |last24=Suckling |first24=Kierán |last25=Davis |first25=Crystal |last26=Sizer |first26=Nigel |last27=Moore |first27=Rebecca |last28=Thau |first28=David |last29=Birch |first29=Tanya |last30=Potapov |first30=Peter |last31=Turubanova |first31=Svetlana |last32=Tyukavina |first32=Alexandra |last33=de Souza |first33=Nadia |last34=Pintea |first34=Lilian |last35=Brito |first35=José C. |last36=Llewellyn |first36=Othman A. |last37=Miller |first37=Anthony G. |last38=Patzelt |first38=Annette |last39=Ghazanfar|first39=Shahina A. |last40=Timberlake |first40=Jonathan |last41=Klöser |first41=Heinz|last42=Shennan-Farpón |first42=Yara |last43=Kindt |first43=Roeland |last44=Lillesø |first44=Jens-Peter Barnekow |last45=van Breugel |first45=Paulo |last46=Graudal |first46=Lars |last47=Voge |first47=Maianna |last48=Al-Shammari |first48=Khalaf F. |last49=Saleem |first49=Muhammad |display-authors=1 |title=An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm |journal=BioScience |volume=67 |issue=6 |year=2017 |pages=534–545 |issn=0006-3568 |doi=10.1093/biosci/bix014 |pmid=28608869 |pmc=5451287 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

More than 80&nbsp;percent of Madagascar's 14,883 [[flora of Madagascar|plant species]] are found nowhere else in the world, including five plant families.<ref name=endemism>{{cite journal |last1=Callmander |first1=Martin |display-authors=etal |title=The endemic and non-endemic vascular flora of Madagascar updated |journal=Plant Ecology and Evolution |volume=144 |issue=2 |pages=121–125 |year=2011 |doi=10.5091/plecevo.2011.513 |bibcode=2011PlEcE.144..121C |url=http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/Research/curators/pdf/PLECEVO_2011.pdf |access-date=11 February 2012 |archive-date=31 August 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130831072620/http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/Research/curators/pdf/PLECEVO_2011.pdf}}</ref> The family ''[[Didiereaceae]]'', composed of four genera and 11 species, is limited to the [[Madagascar spiny thickets|spiny forests]] of southwestern Madagascar.<ref name=endemicstats/> Four-fifths of the world's ''[[Pachypodium]]'' species are endemic to the island.<ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Lavranos |first1 = John |year = 2004 |title = Pachypodium makayense: A New Species From Madagascar |journal = Cactus and Succulent Journal |volume = 76 |issue = 2|pages = 85–88}}</ref> Three-fourths<ref name=B2011plant/> of Madagascar's 860<ref name=endemism/> [[Orchidaceae|orchid]] species are found here alone, as are six of the world's nine [[Adansonia|baobab]] species.<ref>{{cite journal |doi = 10.1080/106351598260879 |vauthors=Baum DA, Small RL, Wendel JF |year = 1998 |title = Biogeography and floral evolution of baobabs (Adansonia, Bombacaceae) as inferred from multiple data sets |journal = Systematic Biology |volume = 47 |issue = 2|pages = 181–207 |pmid = 12064226|doi-access = free }}</ref> The island is home to around 170 [[Arecaceae|palm]] species, three times as many as on all of mainland Africa; 165 of them are endemic.<ref name=B2011plant>Bradt (2011), p. 38</ref> Many native plant species are used as herbal remedies for a variety of afflictions. The drugs [[vinblastine]]<ref name = MoleculesReview>{{cite journal|journal = [[Molecules (journal)|Molecules]]|year = 2012|volume = 17|issue = 5|pages = 5893–5914|doi = 10.3390/molecules17055893|title = Modifications on the basic skeletons of vinblastine and vincristine|first1 = Péter|last1 = Keglevich|first2 = Laszlo|last2 = Hazai|first3 = György|last3 = Kalaus|first4 = Csaba|last4 = Szántay|pmid = 22609781|pmc = 6268133|doi-access = free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first1 = Justin E.|last1 = Sears|first2 = Dale L.|last2 = Boger|author-link2 = Dale L. Boger|title = Total Synthesis of Vinblastine, Related Natural Products, and Key Analogues and Development of Inspired Methodology Suitable for the Systematic Study of Their Structure-Function Properties|journal = [[Accounts of Chemical Research]]|year = 2015|volume = 48|issue = 3|pages = 653–662|doi = 10.1021/ar500400w|pmid = 25586069|pmc = 4363169}}</ref> and [[vincristine]]<ref name = MoleculesReview /><ref>{{cite journal|last1 = Kuboyama|first1 = Takeshi|last2 = Yokoshima|first2 = Satoshi|last3 = Tokuyama|first3 = Hidetoshi|last4 = Fukuyama|first4 = Tohru|title = Stereocontrolled total synthesis of (+)-vincristine|journal = [[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]]|year = 2004|volume = 101|issue = 33|pages = 11966–11970|doi = 10.1073/pnas.0401323101|pmid = 15141084|bibcode = 2004PNAS..10111966K|pmc = 514417|doi-access = free}}</ref> are [[vinca alkaloid|''vinca'' alkaloids]],<ref>{{cite journal|last1 = van der Heijden|first1 = Robert|last2 = Jacobs|first2 = Denise I.|last3 = Snoeijer|first3 = Wim|last4 = Hallard|first4 = Didier|last5 = Verpoorte|first5 = Robert|year = 2004|title = The ''Catharanthus'' alkaloids: Pharmacognosy and biotechnology|journal = [[Current Medicinal Chemistry]]|volume = 11|issue = 5|pages = 607–628|pmid = 15032608|doi = 10.2174/0929867043455846}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last = Raviña|first = Enrique|title = The evolution of drug discovery: From traditional medicines to modern drugs|year = 2011|publisher = [[John Wiley & Sons]]|isbn = 9783527326693|pages = 157–159|chapter = ''Vinca'' alkaloids|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=iDNy0XxGqT8C&pg=PA157|access-date = 4 September 2017|archive-date = 16 December 2019|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191216205648/https://books.google.com/books?id=iDNy0XxGqT8C&pg=PA157|url-status = live}}</ref> used to treat [[Hodgkin lymphoma]],<ref>{{cite web|url = https://www.cancer.org/cancer/hodgkin-lymphoma/treating/chemotherapy.html|date = 29 March 2017|access-date = 22 June 2017|title = Chemotherapy for Hodgkin Lymphoma|publisher = [[American Cancer Society]]|website = [[cancer.org]]|archive-date = 29 August 2017|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170829125716/https://www.cancer.org/cancer/hodgkin-lymphoma/treating/chemotherapy.html|url-status = live}}<br />{{cite web|url = https://www.cancer.org/cancer/non-hodgkin-lymphoma/treating/chemotherapy.html|date = 31 May 2016|access-date = 22 June 2017|title = Chemotherapy for Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma|publisher = [[American Cancer Society]]|website = [[cancer.org]]|archive-date = 29 August 2017|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170829124015/https://www.cancer.org/cancer/non-hodgkin-lymphoma/treating/chemotherapy.html|url-status = live}}</ref> [[leukemia]],<ref>{{cite web|url = https://www.cancer.org/cancer/acute-lymphocytic-leukemia/treating/chemotherapy.html|date = 18 February 2016|access-date = 22 June 2017|title = Chemotherapy for Acute Lymphocytic Leukemia|publisher = [[American Cancer Society]]|website = [[cancer.org]]|archive-date = 29 August 2017|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170829130745/https://www.cancer.org/cancer/acute-lymphocytic-leukemia/treating/chemotherapy.html|url-status = live}}<br />{{cite web|url = https://www.cancer.org/cancer/chronic-myeloid-leukemia/treating/chemotherapy.html|date = 22 February 2016|access-date = 22 June 2017|title = Chemotherapy for Chronic Myeloid Leukemia|publisher = [[American Cancer Society]]|website = [[cancer.org]]|archive-date = 29 August 2017|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170829125626/https://www.cancer.org/cancer/chronic-myeloid-leukemia/treating/chemotherapy.html|url-status = live}}<br />{{cite web|title = Chemotherapy for Childhood Leukemia|date = 3 February 2016|access-date = 22 June 2017|url = https://www.cancer.org/cancer/leukemia-in-children/treating/chemotherapy.html|publisher = [[American Cancer Society]]|website = [[cancer.org]]|archive-date = 29 August 2017|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170829130958/https://www.cancer.org/cancer/leukemia-in-children/treating/chemotherapy.html|url-status = live}}</ref> and other cancers,<ref>{{cite web|title = Chemotherapy for Neuroblastoma|publisher = [[American Cancer Society]]|website = [[cancer.org]]|url = https://www.cancer.org/cancer/neuroblastoma/treating/chemotherapy.html|date = 22 January 2016|access-date = 22 June 2017|archive-date = 29 August 2017|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170829124717/https://www.cancer.org/cancer/neuroblastoma/treating/chemotherapy.html|url-status = live}}<br />{{cite web|url = https://www.cancer.org/cancer/brain-spinal-cord-tumors-children/treating/chemotherapy.html|date = 21 January 2016|access-date = 22 June 2017|title = Chemotherapy for Brain and Spinal Cord Tumors in Children|publisher = [[American Cancer Society]]|website = [[cancer.org]]|archive-date = 29 August 2017|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170829125050/https://www.cancer.org/cancer/brain-spinal-cord-tumors-children/treating/chemotherapy.html|url-status = live}}<br />{{cite web|url = https://www.cancer.org/cancer/non-small-cell-lung-cancer/treating/chemotherapy.html|date = 16 May 2016|access-date = 22 June 2017|title = Chemotherapy for Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer|publisher = [[American Cancer Society]]|website = [[cancer.org]]|archive-date = 29 August 2017|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170829124227/https://www.cancer.org/cancer/non-small-cell-lung-cancer/treating/chemotherapy.html|url-status = live}}<br />{{cite web|url = https://www.cancer.org/cancer/testicular-cancer/treating/chemotherapy.html|date = 12 February 2016|access-date = 22 June 2017|title = Chemotherapy for Testicular Cancer|publisher = [[American Cancer Society]]|website = [[cancer.org]]|archive-date = 28 July 2017|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170728012354/https://www.cancer.org/cancer/testicular-cancer/treating/chemotherapy.html|url-status = live}}</ref> were derived from the [[Catharanthus|Madagascar periwinkle]].<ref name=periw>{{cite journal |last = Foster |first = Steven |title = From Herbs to Medicines: The Madagascar Periwinkle's Impact on Childhood Leukemia: A Serendipitous Discovery for Treatment |journal = Alternative and Complementary Therapies |volume = 16 |issue = 6 |pages = 347–350 |year = 2010 |doi = 10.1089/act.2010.16609|pmid = 20423206 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|chapter = Africa's gift to the world|pages = 46–51|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=aXGmCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA46|title = Botanical Miracles: Chemistry of Plants That Changed the World|first1 = Raymond|last1 = Cooper|first2 = Jeffrey John|last2 = Deakin|publisher = [[CRC Press]]|year = 2016|isbn = 9781498704304|access-date = 4 September 2017|archive-date = 21 May 2020|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200521173802/https://books.google.com/books?id=aXGmCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA46|url-status = live}}</ref> The [[Ravenala|traveler's palm]], known locally as ''ravinala''<ref>Ellis (1859), p. 302</ref> and endemic to the eastern rain forests,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.floridata.com/ref/R/rave_mad.cfm|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110307131656/http://www.floridata.com/ref/r/rave_mad.cfm |archive-date = 7 March 2011|url-status=live|title= Ravenala madagascariensis |publisher=Floridata.com |access-date=14 September 2009 |date=16 May 2000|last = McLendon |first = Chuck}}</ref> is highly iconic of Madagascar and is featured in the national emblem as well as the [[Air Madagascar]] logo.<ref>{{cite web |last = Lambahoany Ecotourism Centre |title = Nature of Madagascar |publisher = Lambahoany Ecotourism Centre |date = 24 August 2011 |url = http://www.lambahoany.org/madagascar/nature-of-madagascar/ |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111213210103/http://www.lambahoany.org/madagascar/nature-of-madagascar/ |archive-date = 13 December 2011 |url-status=dead |access-date =24 August 2011}}</ref>

[[File:OaklandZooLemurs.jpg|thumb|alt=Two ring-tailed lemurs curled up together|The [[ring-tailed lemur]] is one of over 100 known species and subspecies of lemur found only in Madagascar.<ref name="2009Mittermeier">{{cite web |editor1-last = Mittermeier |editor1-first = R.A. |editor2-last = Wallis |editor2-first = J. |editor3-last = Rylands |editor3-first = A.B. |editor4-last = Ganzhorn |editor4-first = J.U. |editor5-last = Oates |editor5-first = J.F. |editor6-last = Williamson |editor6-first = E.A. |editor7-last = Palacios |editor7-first = E. |editor8-last = Heymann |editor8-first = E.W. |editor9-last = Kierulff |editor9-first = M.C.M. |editor11-first = J. |editor12-last = Roos |editor12-first = C. |editor13-last = Walker |editor13-first = S. |editor14-last = Cortés-Ortiz |editor14-first = L. |editor15-last = Schwitzer |editor15-first = C. |others = Illustrated by S.D. Nash |year = 2009 |title = Primates in Peril: The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates 2008–2010 |publisher = [[Primate Specialist Group|IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group]], [[International Primatological Society]], and [[Conservation International]] |pages = 1–92 |url = http://www.primate-sg.org/storage/PDF/Primates.in.Peril.2008-2010.pdf |editor10-first = Long |editor10-last = Yongcheng |editor11-last = Supriatna |access-date = 27 August 2012 |archive-date = 1 February 2014 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140201174835/http://www.primate-sg.org/storage/PDF/Primates.in.Peril.2008-2010.pdf |url-status = live }}</ref>]]

Like its flora, Madagascar's fauna is diverse and exhibits a high rate of endemism. Lemurs have been characterized as "Madagascar's flagship mammal species" by Conservation International.<ref name=CIHotSpot/> In the absence of monkeys and other competitors, these [[primate]]s have adapted to a wide range of habitats and diversified into numerous species. {{As of|2012}}, there were officially [[List of lemur species|103 species and subspecies of lemur]],<ref name=lemurextinction>{{cite news |last=Black |first=Richard |title=Lemurs sliding toward extinction |newspaper=BBC News |date=13 July 2012 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-18825901 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120729093708/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-18825901 |archive-date=29 July 2012 |url-status=live |access-date=26 August 2012}}</ref> 39 of which were described by zoologists between 2000 and 2008.<ref name=Mittermeier2008>{{cite journal |title=Lemur diversity in Madagascar |author=Mittermeier, R. |author2=Ganzhorn, J. |author3=Konstant, W. |author4=Glander, K. |author5=Tattersall, I. |author6-link=Colin Groves |author6=Groves, C. |author7=Rylands, A. |author8=Hapke, A. |author9=Ratsimbazafy, J. |author10=Mayor, M. |author11=Louis, E. |author12=Rumpler, Y. |author13=Schwitzer, C. |author14=Rasoloarison, R. |s2cid=17614597 |journal=International Journal of Primatology |doi=10.1007/s10764-008-9317-y |pages=1607–1656 |volume=29 |issue=6 |date=December 2008 |hdl=10161/6237 |author-link=Russell Mittermeier |url=https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/dspace/bitstream/10161/6237/1/08%20lemur%20diversity.pdf |access-date=24 September 2019 |archive-date=15 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210215163911/https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/10161/6237/08 |url-status=dead }}</ref> They are almost all classified as rare, vulnerable, or endangered. At least 17 species of lemur have become extinct since humans arrived on Madagascar, all of which were larger than the surviving lemur species.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Jungers, W.L. |author2=Godfrey, L.R. |author3=Simons, E.L. |author4=Chatrath, P.S. |title=Phalangeal curvature and positional behaviour in extinct sloth lemurs (Primates, Palaeopropithecidae) |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA |volume=94 |issue=22 |pages=11998–2001 |year=1997|pmid=11038588 |pmc=23681 |doi=10.1073/pnas.94.22.11998 |bibcode=1997PNAS...9411998J|doi-access=free }}</ref>

A number of other mammals, including the catlike [[Fossa (animal)|fossa]], are endemic to Madagascar. Over 300 species of birds have been recorded on the island, of which over 60&nbsp;percent (including four families and 42 genera) are endemic.<ref name=CIHotSpot/> The few families and genera of [[reptile]]s that have reached Madagascar have diversified into more than 260 species, with over 90&nbsp;percent of these being endemic<ref name="Okajima"/> (including one endemic family).<ref name=CIHotSpot/> The island is home to two-thirds of the world's [[chameleon]] species,<ref name="Okajima">{{cite journal |vauthors=Okajima Y, Kumazawa Y |title = Mitogenomic perspectives into iguanid phylogeny and biogeography: Gondwanan vicariance for the origin of Madagascan oplurines |journal = [[Gene (journal)|Gene]] |volume = 441 |issue = 1–2 |pages = 28–35 |year = 2009 |pmid = 18598742|doi = 10.1016/j.gene.2008.06.011}}</ref> including the [[Brookesia nana|smallest known]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1 = Glaw |first1 = F. |last2 = Köhler |first2 = J. R. |last3 = Townsend |first3 = T. M. |last4 = Vences |first4 = M. |editor1-last = Salamin |editor1-first = Nicolas |title = Rivaling the World's Smallest Reptiles: Discovery of Miniaturized and Microendemic New Species of Leaf Chameleons (Brookesia) from Northern Madagascar |doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0031314 |journal = PLOS ONE |volume = 7 |issue = 2 |pages = e31314 |year = 2012 |pmid =22348069|pmc =3279364|bibcode = 2012PLoSO...731314G |doi-access = free }}</ref>

Endemic fish of Madagascar include two families, 15 genera and over 100 species, primarily inhabiting the island's freshwater lakes and rivers. Although invertebrates remain poorly studied in Madagascar, researchers have found high rates of endemism among the known species. All 651 species of terrestrial snail are endemic, as are a majority of the island's butterflies, [[Scarabaeidae|scarab beetles]], [[Neuroptera|lacewings]], spiders, and dragonflies.<ref name=CIHotSpot/>

{{multiple image
|
|footer = Tavy ([[slash-and-burn]]) destruction of native forest habitat is widespread (top), causing massive erosion (bottom).
|align = left
|image1 = Manantenina bushfire.jpg
|width1 = 200
|alt1 = Burning Malagasy rainforest
|image2 = Madagascar erosion.jpg
|width2 = 200
|alt2 = A vast, red soil gully caused by erosion
| direction =vertical 
}}

Madagascar's varied fauna and flora are endangered by human activity.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/wireStory?id=11291024 |title=Everglades, Madagascar Rain Forest on UNESCO List |work=ABC News |date=30 July 2010|access-date=11 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511063211/https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/wireStory?id=11291024 |url-status=live |archive-date=11 May 2011}}</ref> Since the arrival of humans around 2,350&nbsp;years ago, Madagascar has lost more than 90&nbsp;percent of its original forest.<ref>{{NatGeo ecoregion|name = Madagascar subhumid forests|id=at0118|access-date =30 April 2006}}</ref> This forest loss is largely fueled by ''tavy'' ("fat"), a traditional [[slash-and-burn]] agricultural practice imported to Madagascar by the earliest settlers.<ref name="Gade 1996"/> Malagasy farmers embrace and perpetuate the practice not only for its practical benefits as an agricultural technique, but for its cultural associations with prosperity, health and venerated ancestral custom (''fomba malagasy'').<ref>Kull (2004), p. 153</ref> As human population density rose on the island, deforestation accelerated beginning around 1,400 years ago.<ref name=autogenerated4>{{cite journal |last=Campbell |first=Gwyn |title=The Structure of Trade in Madagascar, 1750–1810 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=111–148 |year=1993 |doi=10.2307/219188|jstor=219188 }}</ref> By the 16th century, the central highlands had been largely cleared of their original forests.<ref name="Gade 1996"/> More recent contributors to the loss of forest cover include the growth in cattle herd size since their introduction around 1,000 years ago, a continued reliance on charcoal as a fuel for cooking, and the increased prominence of coffee as a [[cash crop]] over the past century.<ref name="spittingwind">Emoff (2004), pp. 51–62</ref> 
According to a conservative estimate, about 40&nbsp;percent of the island's original forest cover was lost from the 1950s to 2000, with a thinning of remaining forest areas by 80&nbsp;percent.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Harper |first1=Grady J. |last2=Steininger |first2=Marc |last3=Tucker |first3=Compton |last4=Juhn |first4=Daniel |last5=Hawkins |first5=Frank |title=Fifty years of deforestation and forest fragmentation in Madagascar |journal=Environmental Conservation |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=325–333 |year=2007 |doi=10.1017/S0376892907004262 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |s2cid=86120326}}</ref> In addition to traditional agricultural practice, wildlife conservation is challenged by the illicit harvesting of protected forests, as well as the state-sanctioned harvesting of precious woods within national parks. Although banned by then-President [[Marc Ravalomanana]] from 2000 to 2009, the collection of small quantities of precious timber from national parks was re-authorized in January 2009 and dramatically intensified under the administration of [[Andry Rajoelina]] as a key source of state revenues to offset cuts in donor support following Ravalomanana's ousting.<ref name="CrossroadsMarcus" />

{{anchor|Invasive species}}Invasive species have likewise been introduced by human populations. Following the 2014 discovery in Madagascar of the [[Duttaphrynus melanostictus|Asian common toad]], a relative of a toad species that has severely harmed wildlife in Australia since the 1930s, researchers warned the toad could "wreak havoc on the country's unique fauna."<ref>{{cite news |last=Morelle |first=Rebecca |author-link=Rebecca Morelle |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-27607978 |title=Asian relative of cane toad threatens Madagascar havoc |work=BBC News |date=29 May 2014 |access-date=29 July 2014 |archive-date=10 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140710130139/http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-27607978 |url-status=live}}</ref> Habitat destruction and hunting have threatened many of Madagascar's endemic species or driven them to extinction. The island's [[elephant bird]]s, a family of endemic giant [[ratite]]s, became extinct in the 17th century or earlier, most probably because of human hunting of adult birds and poaching of their large eggs for food.<ref name="Davies">Davies (2003), pp. 99–101</ref> Numerous [[Subfossil lemur|giant lemur]] species vanished with the arrival of human settlers to the island, while others became extinct over the course of the centuries as a growing human population put greater pressures on lemur habitats and, among some populations, increased the rate of lemur hunting for food.<ref>{{cite web |last=Handwerk |first=Brian |title=Lemurs Hunted, Eaten Amid Civil Unrest, Group Says |publisher=National Geographic News |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/08/090821-lemurs-killing-madagascar.html |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110510012833/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/08/090821-lemurs-killing-madagascar.html |date=21 August 2009 |archive-date=10 May 2011 |url-status=dead |access-date=15 March 2011}}</ref> A July 2012 assessment found that the exploitation of natural resources since 2009 has had dire consequences for the island's wildlife: 90&nbsp;percent of lemur species were found to be threatened with extinction, the highest proportion of any mammalian group. Of these, 23 species were classified as critically endangered. A 2023 study published in ''[[Nature Communications]]'' found that 120 of the 219 mammal species only found on Madagascar are threatened with extinction.<ref>{{cite news |last=Weston |first=Phoebe |date=January 10, 2023 |title=Madagascar's unique wildlife faces imminent wave of extinction, say scientists |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/jan/10/madagascar-unique-wildlife-extinction-aoe |work=The Guardian |location= |access-date=January 16, 2023 |archive-date=18 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518175716/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/jan/10/madagascar-unique-wildlife-extinction-aoe |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2003, Ravalomanana announced the Durban Vision, an initiative to more than triple the island's [[Protected areas of Madagascar|protected natural areas]] to over {{convert|60000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} or 10&nbsp;percent of Madagascar's land surface. {{As of|2011}}, areas protected by the state included five Strict Nature Reserves (''Réserves Naturelles Intégrales''), 21 Wildlife Reserves (''Réserves Spéciales'') and 21 National Parks (''Parcs Nationaux'').<ref>{{cite web|last = Madagascar National Parks |title = The Conservation |publisher = parcs-madagascar.com |year = 2011 |url = http://www.parcs-madagascar.com/madagascar-national-parks_en.php?Navigation=26 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110731040310/http://www.parcs-madagascar.com/madagascar-national-parks_en.php?Navigation=26 |archive-date = 31 July 2011 |url-status=dead |access-date =25 August 2011}}</ref> In 2007 six of the national parks were declared a joint [[List of World Heritage Sites in Madagascar|World Heritage Site]] under the name [[Rainforests of the Atsinanana]]. These parks are [[Marojejy National Park|Marojejy]], [[Masoala National Park|Masoala]], [[Ranomafana National Park|Ranomafana]], [[Zahamena National Park|Zahamena]], [[Andohahela National Park|Andohahela]] and [[Andringitra National Park|Andringitra]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1257 |title=Rainforests of the Atsinanana |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |access-date=30 April 2011 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110903171219/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1257 |url-status=live |archive-date = 3 September 2011}}</ref> Local timber merchants are harvesting scarce species of rosewood trees from protected rainforests within Marojejy National Park and exporting the wood to China for the production of luxury furniture and musical instruments.<ref>{{cite news |last = Bearak |first = Barry |title = Shaky Rule in Madagascar Threatens Trees |newspaper = New York Times |date = 24 May 2010 |access-date =20 March 2011 |url = https://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/25/world/africa/25madagascar.html |archive-url = https://archive.today/20120906105104/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/25/world/africa/25madagascar.html?_r=1 |url-status=live |archive-date = 6 September 2012}}</ref>