Editing Leopold I of Belgium (section)

==Reign==
{{See also|Belgium in the long nineteenth century}}

===Acceptance of the Belgian throne===
====Search for a monarch====
[[File: Leopold of Saxe-Coburg by Reynolds.jpg|thumb|right|Prince Leopold, by [[Samuel William Reynolds]], {{circa|1820s}}|180px]]
{{See also|Belgian Revolution|Constitution of Belgium}}
At the end of August 1830, rebels in the [[Southern Netherlands|Southern provinces]] (modern-day Belgium) of the [[United Kingdom of the Netherlands|United Netherlands]] rose up against Dutch rule. The rising, which began in [[Brussels]], pushed the Dutch army back, and the rebels defended themselves against a Dutch attack. International powers [[London Conference of 1830|meeting in London]] agreed to support the independence of Belgium, even though the Dutch refused to recognize the new state.<ref>Schroeder, Paul W., ''The Transformation of European Politics 1763–1848'' (1994) pp. 716–718</ref> In November 1830, a [[National Congress of Belgium|National Congress]] was established in Belgium to create a constitution for the new state. Fears of "[[mob rule]]" associated with republicanism after the [[French Revolution of 1789]], as well as the example of the recent, liberal [[July Revolution]] in France, led the Congress to decide that Belgium would be a [[Popular monarchy|popular]], [[constitutional monarchy]].<ref>Witte, Els; Craeybeckx, Jan; Meynen, Alain (2009). ''Political History of Belgium from 1830 Onwards'' (New ed.). Brussels: ASP. p. 25 {{ISBN| 9789054875178}}</ref> The choice of candidates for the position was one of the most controversial issues faced by the revolutionaries. The Congress refused to consider any candidate from the Dutch ruling [[house of Orange-Nassau]].  Some [[Orangism (Belgium)|Orangists]] had hoped to offer the position to [[William I of the Netherlands|William I]] or his son, [[William II of the Netherlands|William, Prince of Orange]], which would bring Belgium into [[personal union]] with the Netherlands like Luxembourg. The [[Great Power]]s also worried that a candidate from another state could risk destabilizing the [[Balance of power (international relations)|international balance of power]] and lobbied for a neutral candidate.{{sfn|Pirenne|1948|p=11}}

Eventually the Congress was able to draw up a shortlist. The viable possibilities were felt to be [[Auguste de Beauharnais|Auguste of Leuchtenberg]], son of [[Eugène de Beauharnais]], and [[Louis, Duke of Nemours]], son of the Louis Philippe I of France. All the candidates were French and the choice between them was principally between choosing the [[Bonapartism]] of Beauharnais or Leuchtenberg and supporting the [[July Monarchy]] of Louis Philippe.{{sfn|Pirenne|1948|p=12}} Louis Philippe realized that the choice of either of the [[Bonapartist]]s could be first stage of a coup against him, but that his son would also be unacceptable to other European powers suspicious of French intentions. Nemours refused the offer.{{sfn|Pirenne|1948|p=14}} With no definitive choice in sight, Catholics and Liberals united to elect [[Erasme Louis Surlet de Chokier]], a minor Belgian nobleman, as [[regent]] to buy more time for a definitive decision in February 1831.{{sfn|Pirenne|1948|p=20}}

Due to opposition of previous candidates, the Belgian Congress proposed Leopold, who had been proposed at an early stage, but had been dropped because of French opposition.{{sfn|Pirenne|1948|p=12}} The problems caused by the French candidates and the increased international pressure for a solution led to his reconsideration. Leopold was known by the Congress due to his military past and a delegation of Belgian representatives was sent to London to meet Leopold. On 22 April, he was finally approached by said delegation at [[Marlborough House]] to officially offer him the throne.{{sfn|Pirenne|1948|p=26}} Leopold read over the [[Treaty of the Eighteen Articles]] prior to it being signed on 9 July 1831, officially separating Belgium and the Netherlands. The treaty also included the possibility of a repurchase of Luxembourg by Belgium. Despite all this, Leopold remained reluctant to accept the Belgian throne.{{sfn|Pirenne|1948|pp=26–7}}

====Accession====
[[File:Prestation de serment du roi Léopold Ier.JPG|thumb|Leopold taking the constitutional oath during his enthronement, by [[Gustaf Wappers]]]]
{{See also|Oath of the Kings of the Belgians#Leopold I}}
On 16 July 1831, Leopold travelled from [[Dover]] to [[Calais]] on the royal yacht ''Crusader'', deciding to accept the throne. The next day he drove by car to [[Dunkirk]] and entered Belgium at [[De Panne]].{{sfn|Kirchen|1998|p=291}} Whilst travelling to Brussels on horseback, he was greeted with patriotic enthusiasm along his route.{{sfn|Pirenne|1948|p=29}} The accession ceremony took place on 21 July on the [[Place Royale, Brussels|Place Royale]] in Brussels. A stand had been erected on the steps of the [[Church of St. James on Coudenberg]], surrounded by the names of revolutionaries fallen during the fighting in 1830. After a ceremony of resignation by the regent, Leopold, dressed in the uniform of a Belgian lieutenant-general, swore loyalty to the constitution, under the supervision of congressman [[Jean-Baptiste Nothomb]], and became king.{{sfn|Pirenne|1948|p=30}} Leopold said in his speech: "I have come hither to work for the welfare of this country, and to preserve, by my acceptance of the crown, the peace of Europe; whatever can contribute to these two things, I will do it; anything beyond that will be harmful."{{sfn|Puraye|1973}} Leopold's enthronement has generally been used to mark the end of the revolution and the start of the Kingdom of Belgium and is celebrated each year as [[Belgian National Day|the Belgian national holiday]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Why does Belgium celebrate its National Day on 21 July? |url=https://www.vrt.be/vrtnws/en/2019/07/21/why-does-belgium-celebrate-its-national-day-on-21-july/ |work=[[VRT News]] |date=21 July 2019}}</ref>

===Consolidation of independence===
Although the Belgian Constitution to which Leopold swore gave the monarch command of the army only as an honorary title, Leopold signalled on multiple occasions that he would personally place himself in charge of the army if Belgium were to be attacked. The Belgian population was widely content with this due to his previous military experience. Less than two weeks after Leopold's accession, on 2 August 1831, the Netherlands invaded Belgium, starting the [[Ten Days' Campaign]]. Leopold immediately requested that [[Belgian Prime Minister]], [[Joseph Lebeau]], contact the foreign offices in London and Paris for assistance. Leopold here followed the Constitution, which forbade him personally from calling upon foreign powers without permission from the legislature, which at this time had not yet been elected.{{sfn|Stengers|2008|pp=92-93}} The small Belgian army was overwhelmed by the Dutch assault and was pushed back, and Leopold took command of a small force that defended the outskirts of Brussels. Leopold once again appealed to the French for support. The French promised support, and the arrival of their ''{{lang|fr|[[Armée du Nord]]}}'' in Belgium forced the Dutch to retreat. Great Britain refused to intervene.{{sfn|Bronne|1947|p=70}} Eventually, the Netherlands accepted a diplomatic mediation and returned behind to the pre-war border. Skirmishes continued for eight years, but in April 1839, the two countries signed the [[Treaty of London (1839)|Treaty of London]], whereby the Dutch finally recognised Belgium's independence.<ref>{{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q0_6pPNR40EC&q=%22London+conference%22+1839&pg=PA417|title=Places of Refuge: The Belgian Experience|page=417|chapter=Chapter 15|first=Eric |last=Van Hooydonk|editor-first1=Aldo E. |editor-last1=Chircop |editor-first2=O. |editor-last2=Lindén |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff|location=Leiden|year=2006|isbn=9789004149526}}</ref>

[[File:Royal Monogram of King Leopold I of the Belgians.svg|thumb|left|upright|100px|Leopold's [[royal monogram|personal monogram]]]]
Leopold's attitude during the war earned him both praise and criticism in the Belgian media. For example, an article in ''[[L'Indépendance Belge]]'' read, "The King of the Belgians, [...] showed rare composure and intrepidity. Always in the most perilous places, he was often obliged to fulfill both the functions of generalissimo and those of second lieutenant."<ref>{{Cite journal|language=fr|title=The Two Armies|journal=[[L'Indépendance Belge]]|date=20 August 1831|pages=2|url=https://www.belgicapress.be/pageview.php?all_q=g%C3%A9n%C3%A9ralissime&any_q=&exact_q=&none_q=&from_d=20-08-1831&to_d=20-08-1831&per_lang=&per=&sig=JB555&lang=FR|access-date=2 December 2019}}</ref> However, an article the following day critiqued, "The approach of our troops repaired everything, but what is less repairable is the failure that the Belgians suffered in the opinion of Europe."<ref>{{Cite journal|language=fr|title=Nouvelles de la Belgique|journal=[[L'Indépendance Belge]]|date=22 August 1831|pages=1|url=https://www.belgicapress.be/pageview.php?all_q=r%C3%A9parable&any_q=&exact_q=&none_q=&from_d=22-08-1831&to_d=22-08-1831&per_lang=&per=&sig=JB555&lang=FR|access-date=21 January 2025}}</ref> Following the war and large losses that Belgium suffered, Leopold reorganised national defence, disbanded the ''[[Garde Civique]]'' and legislated the army's numbers at 80,000 men. When the Dutch abandoned Belgium, they left a garrison force that closed the [[Scheldt]] to Belgian shipping, meaning that the port of [[Antwerp]] was effectively useless.{{sfn|Bronne|1947|p=81}} The Netherlands and the Dutch colonies in particular, which had been profitable markets for Belgian manufacturers before 1830, became totally closed to Belgian goods. The French [[Army of the North (France)|Army of the North]], which had helped Belgium considerably in the Ten Days' Campaign, defeated the Dutch army the following year and lifted the siege of Antwerp on 15 November 1832. However, the Dutch managed to burn down much of the city before its liberation, and subsequent fighting remained until the Netherlands was finally defeated on 23 December 1832. The Dutch government continued to refuse to recognise the Treaty of the Eighteen Articles and [[William I of the Netherlands]] organised in May 1833 an embargo of Dutch coasts. Belgian, British and Dutch delegations subsequently met in [[Zonhoven]] to resolve the matters, but Leopold left unsatisfied as no agreements were definitively made.{{sfn|Defrance|2004|p=130}}

In April 1834, anti-[[Orangism (Dutch Republic)|orangist]] riots broke out in Brussels and soon developed into protests in favour of Leopold. Several of the former residences of William's family in Belgium and hotels in Brussels were ransacked, leading to Leopold travelling in on horseback and convincing the protestors to disband by giving a speech. Leopold's advisors believed that peace had been restored and suggested he left, but soon after the Hotel of Trazegnies was also ransacked and the military were sent in.{{sfn|Bronne|1947|pp=106-114}} Over 115 people were arrested and seven were wounded, before the Belgian legislature passes a law that would punish pro-Orangist propaganda.{{sfn|Bronne|1947|p=113}} Subsequently, Leopold took charge of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs to deal with diplomatic clashes with the Netherlands, including the matter of Belgian claims to [[Dutch Limburg]], which Leopold was unable to obtain, thus ruining his prospect for a new railway line through the region. He was successful however in reducing the country's debt to the Netherlands from 8,400,000 to 5,400,000 [[florins]].{{sfn|Stengers|2008|pp=266-267}} The Netherlands would finally go on to recognise Belgian independence by signing the [[Treaty of London (1839)|Treaty of London]] in 1839. The Belgio-Dutch border was agreed to on 8 August 1843 with the [[Treaty of Maastricht (1843)|Treaty of Maastricht]].<ref>{{Cite book|first1=Guo|last1=Rongxing|title=Territorial Disputes and Resource Management; A Global Handbook|location=New York|publisher=Nova Science Publisher|year=2006|page=56|isbn=978-1-60021-445-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z5Le627xQLgC}}</ref>

Leopold was generally unsatisfied with the amount of power allocated to the monarch in the Constitution, and sought to extend it wherever the Constitution was ambiguous or unclear while generally avoiding involvement in routine politics.{{sfn|Chastain|1999}}

===Marriage, family and residences===
{{Css Image Crop|Image = Belgium 1835 40 Francs.jpg |bSize = 361|cWidth = 175|cHeight = 175|oTop = 5|oLeft = 4|Location = right|Description = Leopold on a 40 [[Belgian franc|franc]] coin in 1835 }}
Though Leopold was now monarch, due to his widowed status, there was concern over the issue of dynastic succession with Leopold having no issue. To strengthen ties with France, Leopold considered marrying a French princess and approached the [[King of the French]], [[Louis Philippe I]], who agreed to Leopold marrying his daughter, [[Louise of Orléans]].{{sfn|Stengers|2008|p=253}} They married on 9 August 1832 at the [[Château de Compiègne]] and participated in a civil ceremony, a Catholic service and a Lutheran blessing.{{sfn|Roegiers|2007|p=38}} Although the marriage was arranged, author Patrick Roegiers writes that the pair found happiness in each other. Soon after their wedding, Leopold asked the government if Louise could be appointed regent while he travelled, but they unanimously opposed. Leopold and Louise gave birth to their first son, [[Louis Philippe, Crown Prince of Belgium|Louis Philippe]], on 24 July 1833, however the infant died nine months later on 16 May 1834 from an inflammation of mucous membranes.<ref>{{Cite book|first1=Georges |last1=van den Abeelen|title=Portraits of Kings; 150 Years of Constitutional Monarchy|location=Brussels|year=1981|page=44}}</ref> Two years later, on 9 April 1835, Louise gave birth to a second son, [[Leopold II of Belgium|Leopold]]. Two more children, [[Prince Philippe, Count of Flanders|Philippe]] and [[Charlotte of Belgium|Charlotte]], followed on 24 March 1837 and 7 June 1840 respectively.{{sfn|Bronne|1947|p=163}}{{sfn|Huberty|1976|p=508}}

Of his three royal residences, the Royal Palace of Antwerp, the [[Royal Palace of Brussels]] and the [[Castle of Laeken]], Leopold chose the latter as it reminded him of his erstwhile British residence, Claremont House. There, Leopold and Louise lived a generally relaxed and quiet life, with Louise stating that "The King, his dog and I" only lived there.{{sfn|Bronne|1947|p=98}} According to Bronne, they would wake up mid-morning, attend mass and then read through their mail, which was sent in from Paris. Louise was often excited to read Parisian mail as it often came from her own family. When receiving politicians, officials and members of Belgian aristocracy, Leopold would often engage in [[cue sports]].{{sfn|Bronne|1947|pp=100-101}}

In 1844, Leopold met [[Arcadie Claret]], the eighteen-year-old daughter of an officer in the Belgian army.{{sfn|Defrance|2004|p=232}} They very soon after had an affair and Leopold encouraged her to marry to avoid being caught out. Claret married Ferdinand Meyer in 1845, who managed the royal stables and agreed to be her husband in return for financial compensation. However, Meyer soon left for Coburg to allow Leopold and Claret to continue their relationship. Claret was placed in a house near the Royal Palace of Brussels and was discovered as Leopold's mistress by the media, who also highlights Louise's declining health. Claret's house was attacked by the public for her use of palace carriages when going out. Leopold, per his advisors, encouraged Claret to have more restraint when travelling, but she left Belgium for Germany in October 1850. She eventually returned to Belgium and moved into [[Château of Stuyvenberg]].{{sfn|Defrance|2004|p=236}} Leopold had two illegitimate sons, George and Arthur, by Claret.<ref>{{cite book|first= Reinout|last=Goddyn|title=De kinderen van de koning: Alle erfgenamen van Leopold I|publisher=House of Books|year=2002|page=96|language=nl}}</ref><ref name="Capron">{{cite book|last1=Capron|first1=Victor|title=Sur les traces d'Arcadie Claret: le Grand Amour de Léopold Ier|date=2006|location=Brussels|language=fr}}</ref> {{ill|George von Eppinghoven|fr|Georges-Frédéric von Eppinghoven}} was born in 1849, and {{ill|Arthur von Eppinghoven|fr}} in 1852. At Leopold's request,<ref name="Capron"/> in 1862 his two sons were created Freiherr von Eppinghoven by his nephew, [[Ernest II, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha]]. In 1863, Claret was also created Baronin von Eppinghoven.<ref>{{cite book|title=Genealogisches Handbuch des Adels|trans-title=Genealogical Handbook of the Nobility|series=Freiherrlichen Häuser|volume=Band XXI|year=1999|publisher=C. A. Starke|language=de|pages=101–103}}</ref>

===Domestic policy, politics and infrastructure===
While the drafters of the Belgian Constitution aimed to make Belgium a constitutional monarchy, making the monarch a neutral and impartial arbiter, Leopold had managed to assign himself significant powers, such as assuming multiple ministries and taking charge of many diplomatic, administrative and military domains.{{sfn|de Lichtervelde|1929|p=145}} From 1831 to 1846, politics in Belgium was divided between [[Liberal Party (Belgium)|Liberal]] and [[Catholic politics|Catholic]] parties, along with [[Unionism in Belgium|unionist]] governments. Catholicism had always been the dominant religion in Belgium, yet Leopold had always refused to convert from his Lutheran faith and favoured the Liberals.{{sfn|Chastain|1999}}<ref name="Gita Deneckere">{{Cite book|first1=Gita |last1=Deneckere|editor-first1=Gustaaf |editor-last1=Janssens|editor-first2=Jean |editor-last2=Strengers|title=New Perspectives on Leopold I and Leopold II|location=Brussels|publisher=Goffinet Archives Fund|year=1997|page=129}}</ref> To appease to the public, he sought to maintain cordial relations with the [[Holy See]], though historian Louis de Lichtervelde suggests it may have been to reassure and consolidate his own power against "the only other force [Catholicism]" that had more popularity of him. Leopold also believed that the Church would act as a means of unity for Belgium, which [[Languages of Belgium|was linguistically divided]].<ref name="Gita Deneckere"/>

[[File:Epaulette 10c.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Leopold depicted on the [[Epaulettes (stamp)|first Belgian postage stamp]], issued in 1849]]
Historians believe that the fall of the [[Barthélémy de Theux de Meylandt#First government|Theux government]] in April 1840 was feared by Leopold as it was it marked the first time in modern Belgian history, and under his reign, that a government had collapsed.<ref>{{Cite book|language=fr|first1=Mark |last1=Van Den Wijngaert|first2=Dana |last2=Brants|first3=Lieve |last3=Beullens|translator-first=Anne-Laure |translator-last=Vignaux|title=Power and Monarchy; Belgium and Its Kings|location=Brussels|publisher=La Renaissance du livre|year=2002|page=171|isbn=978-2-87415-157-6}}</ref> Leopold was opposed to Lebeau forming government as his party had voted against [[Barthélémy de Theux de Meylandt]], which caused the government's collapse. In 1846, the [[Party for Freedom and Progress]] convened to strengthen the cooperation between the executive and legislature, and as a result of new Bills passed by [[Charles Rogier]]'s government, the role of the monarch was reduced and Liberals dominated politics, advocating for free trade, freedoms, liberties and secularisation.{{sfn|de Lichtervelde|1929|p=237}}{{sfn|Ascherson|1999|pp=20–21}} During the second half of Leopold's reign, the Liberals remained in power. While meeting with the government, Leopold made it clear that he believed the appointment and dismissal of ministers was his prerogative per the Constitution, and demanded that he be informed in advance of all government, ministerial and administrative decisions.<ref>{{Cite book|first1=Guido |last1=Provoost|title=The Monarchy and Domestic Political Issues; 150 Years of Constitutional Monarchy|location=Brussels|year=1981|page=109}}</ref>

Throughout Leopold's reign, Belgium experienced economic and industrial progress, despite economic crises during the early decades of his reign. The period between 1845 and 1849 was particularly hard in Flanders, where harvests failed and a third of the population became dependent on poor relief, and have been described as the "worst years of Flemish history".{{sfn|Carson|1974|p=225}} The economic situation in Flanders also increased the internal migration to Brussels and the industrial areas of [[Wallonia]], which continued throughout the period.{{sfn|Carson|1974|p=225}} Despite this, Leopold worked closely with the government to develop infrastructure, to which he promised in his enthronement speech: "Multiple efforts will be directed towards the improvement and extension of agriculture, commerce and industry; they contribute to spreading prosperity among the various classes of inhabitants and to cementing harmony."<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Opening of the Chamber Sessions|journal=L'Indépendance Belge|date=14 November 1838|pages=1|url=https://www.belgicapress.be/pageview.php?all_q=cimenter&any_q=&exact_q=&none_q=&from_d=14-11-1838&to_d=14-11-1838&per_lang=&per=&sig=JB555&lang=FR|access-date=2 December 2019}}</ref> In 1842, Leopold failed to pass laws to regulate child and women labour. He wanted to ban them from working in certain industries, such as harvesting in which he believe they dominated, however the Bill he proposed was defeated and child labour continued to be abused.{{sfn|Monarchie website}} For example, in 1850, the coal industry employed nearly 3300 women, 4400 boys and 1221 girls under the age of sixteen in underground labour. In agriculture, similar statistics existed with harsh working conditions and low wages. An investigation was conducted in 1853 and 1854 by journalist [[Édouard Ducpétiaux]] found that the average Belgian worker had to devote 65.8% of their wage to basic needs. The issue of low wages was never recognised or tended to by Leopold.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Memorial 1865-1965 of the General Savings and Retirement Fund|location=Brussels|year=1965|pages=34–35}}</ref>

The opening of the first railway line connecting Belgium to continental Europe was promoted by Leopold. He was an early supporter of railways, and Belgium's first stretch of railway, between northern Brussels and [[Mechelen]], was completed in 1835. When completed, it was one of the first passenger railways on the continent.{{sfn|Wolmar|2010|p=19}} The development of railways allowed for the growth of the industry and in an 1847 speech, Leopold remarked: "Freight transport and railway revenues continue to increase at a remarkable rate. Measures are being prepared to increase them further and to introduce improvements in the operation of this important service."<ref>{{Cite book|language=fr|first1=Jacques |last1=Payen|first2=Bernard |last2=Escudié|first3=Jean-Marc |last3=Combe|title=The Locomotive in France; From the Origins to the Mid-XIX|publisher=Éditions du CNRS|location=Lyon|year=1988|page=250|isbn=9782222041900|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fbq3AAAAIAAJ&q=%22Le+Belge%22}}</ref> Multiple historians attribute the development and production of [[cast iron]], steel, coal, glassworks and cloth weaving to Leopold's reign. Earlier in 1835, Leopold had inaugurated the [[National Bank of Belgium]], which solidified the 1832 creation and circulation of the [[Belgian franc]]. Leopold appeared on coinage and postage stamps, which had helped to congeal the legitimacy of his reign in the early years.{{sfn|Stengers|Gubin|2002|p=30}}

===Revolution of 1848===
[[File:Bruxelles à travers les âges (1884) (14740791186).jpg|thumb|Engraving of Leopold's theatrical offer in 1848 to abdicate]]
In 1848, protests plagued the majority of Europe. The success of economic reforms partially mitigated the effects of the economic downturn and meant that Belgium was not as badly affected as its neighbours by the [[Revolutions of 1848]].{{sfn|Stengers|Gubin|2002|pp=8-14, 35-36}} Nevertheless, in early 1848, a large number of radical publications appeared. The most serious threat of the 1848 revolutions in Belgium was posed by Belgian [[émigré]] groups. Shortly after the [[French Revolution of 1848]], Belgian migrant workers living in Paris were encouraged to return to Belgium to overthrow the monarchy and establish a republic. Around 6000 armed émigrés of the "[[Belgian Legion#French Revolution of 1848|Belgian Legion]]" attempted to cross the Belgian frontier. The first group, travelling by train, was stopped and quickly disarmed at [[Quiévrain]] on 26 March 1848.{{sfn|Ascherson|1999|pp=20–21}} The second group crossed the border on 29 March and headed for Brussels. They were confronted by Belgian troops at the hamlet of [[Risquons-Tout]] and, during fighting, seven émigrés were killed and most of the rest were captured.{{sfn|Chastain|1997}}

In order to defuse tension, the government adopted multiple measured aimed at liberalising the country and preventing it from being attacked by revolutionary ideas of its neighbours. For example, the stamp duty on newspapers was abolished and agents who the state believed could serve as potential disturbances to public order, such as [[Karl Marx]], were expelled from Belgium in March. Ultimately, Leopold theatrically offered his abdication, if this was the wish of the majority of his people. Historians such as Stengers and [[Éliane Gubin]] claim that it was the first time in his life that Leopold regretted not taking up the offer of the Greek throne.{{sfn|Stengers|Gubin|2002|p=39}} The defeat at Risquons-Tout effectively ended the revolutionary threat to Belgium, as the situation in Belgium began to recover that summer after a good harvest, and [[1848 Belgian general election|fresh elections]] returned a strong Liberal majority.{{sfn|Chastain|1997}} At the end of 1848, Leopold commented on the situation: "You know this country which, I can say without false modesty, has been administered in an exemplary manner for almost 18 years. It proved itself well during the crisis and despite the terrible neighborhood of Paris. [...] After this trial by fire, the country became very solid [...], I gained the trust of most of the Cabinets and also of the people; I intend to use it and use it to the full for the benefit of Europe."{{sfn|Puraye|1973|p=369}}

===Foreign policy===
====Role in European affairs====
[[File: 1840 portrait of King Leopold I (King of the Belgians) by Winterhalter.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Portrait of Leopold I of Belgium]]'' by [[Franz Xaver Winterhalter]], {{circa|1840}}|180px]]
For his role in European affairs, Leopold was dubbed the "[[Nestor (mythology)|Nestor]] of Europe", after the wise mediator in [[Homer]]'s ''[[Iliad]]''.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Leopold-I-king-of-Belgium |title=Leopold I |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] |access-date=3 February 2025}}</ref> This was also due to his connection to other monarchs. For example, Leopold's niece was Queen of Great Britain, his nephew was Prince Consort of Great Britain and his nephew was the Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. He remained in close contact with his sovereign relatives, particularly Queen Victoria.{{sfn|de Lichtervelde|1929|pp=272-273}} Historian [[Jean Stengers]] records that Leopold's intervention in European affairs was to look after Belgian interests, to look after British interests and to encourage peace to maintain the conservative order.<ref name="Stengers p259">{{harvsp|Stengers|2008|pp=259–262}}</ref> Not only did Leopold have high correspondence with other leaders, but he regularly travelled and made informal and state visits. Throughout his reign and particularly in the 1840s, a main goal of his was to repair [[Franco-British relations]] due to the [[Eastern question]].<ref name="Stengers p259" /> He organised a meeting between his father-in-law, Louis Philippe I of France, and his niece, Queen Victoria, in 1843 at the [[Château d'Eu]], marking the first time in thirteen years that the [[House of Orléans]] received a foreign monarch. The following year, Louis Philippe visited Victoria in Britain, with Leopold and Louise organising his itinerary.{{sfn|Bronne|1947|pp=171-172}} Moreover, with the rise of Prussia to the east of Belgium, Leopold worked to maintain amicable ties with the German states. In August 1843, along with members of the British royal family, Leopold travelled to [[Brühl (Rhineland)|Brühl]] and stayed at [[Stolzenfels Castle]] with the Prussian monarch and forty members of other German royalty. Notably, the Emperor of Russia, [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]], did not attend despite his invite. In 1844, per [[Jules Van Praet]], Russia and Belgium [[Belgium–Russia relations|established relations]].{{sfn|Bronne|1947|pp=173-174}}

The rise of Prussia as the dominating German power continued to occur throughout the decades of Leopold's reign. The new [[German Confederation]]'s legislature became the [[Frankfurt Assembly]], which was the first pan-German parliament with representatives from each German state, including the German-speaking areas of the Austrian Empire.{{sfn|de Lichtervelde|1929|pp=255-256}} Leopold's name was suggested as a potential candidate for the federal leader of the Confederation who would bear the imperial crown of Germany. Naturally, the entry of Belgium into the German Confederation was then discussed.{{sfn|Defrance|2004|p=222}} Leopold was opposed to both of these propositions as it was contravene Belgium's status as a neutral power and would diminish the independence of the country. The German Confederation nonetheless soon disbanded, though [[German Unification]] would later occur after Leopold's death.{{sfn|de Lichtervelde|1929|p=256}}

When Louis Philippe was deposed in the 1848 French Revolution, Leopold remained neutral and was one of the first heads of state to recognise the new [[Second French Republic|French Republic]].{{sfn|Defrance|2004|p=237}}{{sfn|de Lichtervelde|1929|p=256}} While this pleased the new French government, it came as a shock to other European nations who had admired [[Political neutrality#Formerly neutral|Belgian neutrality]],<ref name="Deneckere">{{cite book |last1=Deneckere |first1=Gita |title=Leopold I. De eerste koning van Europa |date=2011 |location=Antwerp |pages=500–537}}</ref> imposed by Article VII of the [[Treaty of London (1839)]].<ref name="Anckaer1">{{cite journal |last1=Anckaer |first1=Jan |title=Dangerous Opportunities? Reassessing Belgian Neutrality during the Crimean War (1853–1856) |journal=Journal of Belgian History XLIV |date=2014 |volume=4 |page=70 |url=https://www.journalbelgianhistory.be/en/system/files/article_pdf/006_Anckaer_Jan_2014_4_reduit.pdf |access-date=1 June 2024}}</ref> While most historians have depicted Leopold as faithful to this, others have not, such as Belgian historian Jan Anckaer, who interprets Leopold's diplomatic efforts in the [[Second Egyptian-Ottoman War]] in 1840<ref>{{cite book |last1=Anckaer |first1=Jan |title=Small power diplomacy and commerce. Belgium and the Ottoman Empire during the reign of Leopold I, 1831–1865 |date=2013 |chapter=3|publisher=The Isis Press |location=Istanbul |isbn=978-9754284898}}</ref><ref name="Anckaer1"/> and Belgium's manufacture of arms for Russia during the Crimean War as breaches of neutrality.<ref name="Anckaer1"/> Following the [[July Monarchy]], the [[Second French Empire]] was ignited, which worried the Belgian government. Immediately following the [[1851 French coup d'état]], Leopold sent Prime Minister [[Henri de Brouckère]] to Paris to meet the new [[Napoleon III]] to assure cordial relations.{{sfn|Defrance|2004|p=237}} Leopold saw the new regime in France as a threat and began limiting the number of French political refugees to maintain on the good side of Napoleon, who Leopold met in Calais in 1854. The following year, Leopold sent his eldest son to Paris for an exhibition as the official Belgian delegation.{{sfn|Defrance|2004|pp=254-257}}

Furthermore, despite initial skirmishes at the start of his tenure, Leopold wanted to repair relations with the Netherlands.{{sfn|Bilteryst|2014|p=105}} In October 1859, Leopold sent his youngest son to [[The Hague]] on a state visit, where he met with the [[Dutch royal family]]. On 18 October 1861 in [[Liège]], Leopold received [[William III of the Netherlands]], who returned via Belgium after meeting with Napoleon III.{{sfn|de Lichtervelde|1929|pp=333-334}} The day before the Belgian and Dutch monarchs met, Leopold wrote to Victoria: "He will be very well received, his process is rightly appreciated here. Being received in the very country where you were Crown Prince is a little painful and you feel slightly embarrassed." The meeting is successful.{{sfn|de Lichtervelde|1929|p=334}}

====Role in colonial affairs====
When Leopold swore allegiance to the Constitution, Belgium had no colonial possessions and could not lay claim to any [[Dutch colonial empire|Dutch colonies]]. However, Belgium did seek to develop its industry and trade, which it saw would require establishing commercial relations with non-European countries. Leopold also believed that acquiring a colony would solve the issue of rising poverty rates, a cause of rapid industrialisation and food shortages following war with the Netherlands.{{sfn|Wei|1959|p=396}} In attempting to set up colonies, Leopold engaged in multiple planning projects which he personally funded, however they were all abandoned by the government. He proposed taking the [[Isle of Pines (New Caledonia)|Isle of Pines]], [[Tortuga (Haiti)|Tortuga]] and other territories in the [[Antilles]]. Sweden made Belgium an offer to cede the island of [[Swedish colony of Saint Barthélemy|Saint Barthélemy]], but France soon took it up. Other colonial prospects of Leopold's that resulted in failure included taking the [[Faroe Islands]], setting up a Belgian protectorate in [[Colony of New Zealand|New Zealand]], installing a Belgian trading post in [[Ethiopian Empire|Ethiopia]], taking the [[Nicobar Islands]] per an English shipping company's suggestion, and establishing a consortium in the [[History of the Philippines (1565–1898)|Philippines]] that would pay Spain at 5% interest.{{sfn|Bronne|1947|pp=189-191}}

The [[Belgian Colonisation Company]] was founded on 18 September 1841 and was funded by Leopold. Its objectives were to "create agricultural, industrial and commercial establishments in different states of Central America and other places" and "to establish commercial relations between these countries and Belgium".<ref>{{Cite book|title=Belgian Colonial Company, Statutes, Contracts, and Charters|date=October 1841}}</ref> The company purchased 404,666 hectares of land in [[Santo Tomás de Castilla]] (modern-day [[Guatemala]]) granted by the Guatemalan dictator [[Rafael Carrera]]. An exploration commission was sent on 9 November 1841 in order to finalise the purchase, however Belgian delegates soon began leaving due to unsanitary conditions. Leopold pushed for the project to continue. Until 1847, Belgium sent ships full of settlers, served prisoners and working-class men to the territory, promising a more hopeful future, however this failed due to harsh conditions leading to a high mortality rate. In 1855, Guatemala pulled out from the deal.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Nicolas|last=Leysbeth|title=History of Belgian Colonization in Santo-Tomas, Guatemala|location=Brussels|publisher=Nouvelle Société d'Édition|year=1938|page=153}}</ref>

Later, in 1859, Great Britain and France sent expeditionary forces to [[Qing dynasty|China]], bound for [[Beijing]]. Under Leopold's eldest son, Leopold, who held an interest in the [[Far East]], Belgium sought to involve itself by sending volunteers so that the country would economically benefit and strengthen ties with Britain and France. Napoleon III was contacted by the Belgian monarch, and the two agreed to Belgian involvement, however the government stated that it would pull out if conflict were to occur.{{sfn|Stengers|2008|pp=268-270}} In 1860, Leopold sent his youngest son, Philip, to [[Empire of Brazil|Brazil]] so that he could marry one of the daughters of Empero [[Pedro II of Brazil|Pedro II]]. Pedro subsequently gifted Philip with multiple territories for European migrants to settle on.{{sfn|Bilteryst|2014|p=108}} Leopold was eager for the marriage to work as it would establish a branch of his family in South America. However, Philip was unimpressed and abandoned the project.{{sfn|Bilteryst|2014|pp=116-118}} By the end of Leopold's reign, Belgium still lacked colonies, however his son would soon acquire the [[Free State of Congo|Congo]] as his own personal private property before ceding it to Belgium in 1908.{{sfn|Defrance|2004|p=348}}

====Role in family affairs and the death of Louise====
[[File:Group photograph of Queen Victoria, Prince Albert, Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, Count of Flanders, Princess Alice, Duke of Oporto, and King Leopold I of the Belgians, 1859 (image restaurée).jpg|thumb|right|Leopold with members of his family in June 1859.{{Efn|Left to right: Leopold's son [[Prince Philippe, Count of Flanders|Prince Philippe]], Leopold's nephew [[Albert, Prince Consort|Prince Albert]], Leopold's great-niece [[Princess Alice of the United Kingdom|Princess Alice]], Leopold's great-nephew [[Luís I of Portugal|Prince Luís]], Leopold's niece [[Queen Victoria]] (''seated''), Leopold's great-nephew [[Edward VII|Prince Edward]], and Leopold.}}]]
As a member of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, Leopold was eager to his family's influence rise throughout Europe. He skillfully used his family connections and marriages to protect Belgium from French ambitions and the threat of annexation by Napoleon III. Leopold supported the marriage of his nephew, [[Ferdinand II of Portugal|Ferdinand]], to the [[Queen of Portugal]], [[Maria II of Portugal|Maria II]], in 1836. Portugal had a longstanding alliance with Great Britain and with his nephew now on the Portuguese throne ''[[jure uxoris]]'', Leopold hoped it would bring Belgium and Britain closer.{{sfn|Defrance|2004|pp=140-148}} In 1840, Leopold's nephew, Albert, married his first cousin and Leopold's niece, Queen Victoria, thus cementing Anglo-Belgian ties.{{sfn|Defrance|2004|pp=153-165}} In 1843, Leopold's nephew, [[Prince August of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha]], married Louise's sister, [[Princess Clémentine of Orléans]], thus again uniting the two royal houses.{{sfn|Defrance|2004|pp=196-200}} Though Leopold had influenced all these royal marriages, he was not always as successful. In 1846, August's brother, [[Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha]], failed to marry [[Isabella II of Spain]].{{sfn|Defrance|2004|pp=201-208}}

Meanwhile, in France in 1850, Louise had caught a cold while attending a ceremony commemorating her recently deceased father. Though medical experts did not seem concerned, Louise died prematurely on 11 October 1850, aged 38.{{sfn|Monarchie website}} It was the second time Leopold was widowed and he became deeply saddened by this.{{sfn|Defrance|2004|p=243}}

{{cquote|For eighteen years, and more, Louise was a true friend and it is truly impossible to get an exact idea of her love and devotion. [...] It is an enormous loss, because our friendship was frankly cordial and it was never disturbed, for eighteen years, even if only for a moment.|4=Leopold upon Louise's death.{{sfn|Puraye|1973|p=393}}}}

Per Defrance, the mood in the royal court fell sombre dramatically after this.{{sfn|Defrance|2004|p=243}} Leopold and Louise's children, who were barely teenagers, suffered in the absence of their mother and were often left to nannys. Louise had personally educated her children and now tutors needed to be found. Leopold became more reclusive and distanced from his family, with it becoming normal for their only form of communication to be by letter, either in French or German.{{sfn|Bilteryst|2014|p=40}} Leopold found comfort in Louise's friend and his daughter's tutor, Countess Denise d'Hulst, and he attempted to father his two sons, who began regularly rebelling against him.{{sfn|Bilteryst|2014|pp=44-45}}

As his children aged, Leopold was gladdened to see his eldest son and daughter marry into the [[House of Habsburg-Lorraine]], who served as the [[Emperors of Austria]] and previously of the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. In 1853, Leopold's eldest son married [[Marie Henriette of Austria]], a first cousin of Emperor [[Franz Joseph I]].{{sfn|Bilteryst|2014|p=52}} Four years later, Leopold encouraged the matrimonial pairing of his daughter, Charlotte, with [[Maximilian I of Mexico|Archduke Maximilian of Austria]], who was later appointed the [[Emperor of Mexico]].{{sfn|Bilteryst|2014|pp=69-71}} Additionally, Leopold's great-nephew, [[Edward VII|Edward, Prince of Wales]] (the future Edward VII), married [[Alexandra of Denmark]] in 1862 under the auspices of Leopold.{{sfn|de Lichtervelde|1929|p=350}} Edward's mother, Queen Victoria, continued Leopold's legacy of arranging royal marriages for the family, becoming nicknamed the "[[grandmother of Europe]]".<ref>{{Cite book|first=Joanny|last=Moulin|title=Victoria, Queen of a Century|location=Paris|publisher=[[Groupe Flammarion|Flammarion]]|year=2019|isbn=978-2-081489-57-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4g6TDwAAQBAJ}}</ref> However, Leopold's role in Belgian diplomacy diminished in favour of the government in the later years of his reign. In 1859, he failed to convince his Cabinet to send a Belgian brigade to support Anglo-French naval troops in China, and in 1863, he played little role in negotiations concerning the purchase of the Scheldt toll.<ref>{{harvsp|Stengers|2008|pp=268–271}}</ref>

===Later reign===
====Silver Jubilee====
[[File:Décoration de la place des Palais.JPG|alt=Lithographie colorée représentant les décorations de la place des Palais à l'occasion des 25 ans de l'inauguration de sa majesté le Roi Léopold Ier. Une foule de belges se tient devant le Palais royal.|thumb|270px|right|Leopold's Silver Jubilee on 22 July 1856]]
In Summer 1856, Leopold celebrated his [[Silver Jubilee]], celebrating 25 years of his reign and since the inauguration of the first King of the Belgians. On 21 July 1856, Leopold travelled on horseback on the same route that he had taken when he first arrived in Belgium, through Laeken and then to the Royal Palace of Brussels. His two sons also travel with him, and he attended a [[Te Deum]] of gratitude in his honour. While Leopold had become more recluse as his reign continued, he was delighted with his jubilee and made many appearances.{{sfn|de Lichtervelde|1929|p=272-273}} In the following months of the anniversary, Leopold and his sons visit each province of the country, where they stay at each capital and attend processions, balls, banquets, Church services and factory tours. Stockmar, who was in retirement in Coburg, wrote in his diary his surprise of the use of the Dutch language during the tour.{{sfn|de Lichtervelde|1929|p=279}}

The following year, Belgium faced political crisis when Catholic Prime Minister [[Pierre de Decker]] introduced a new Bill into Parliament which he believed would act as a unifying force between the Catholics and the Liberals. For 27 parliamentary sessions, the Bill is debated as it was deemed controversial by the shadow ministry and Opposition.{{sfn|de Lichtervelde|1929|pp=283-285}} Protests by the public against the Bill soon broke out in the capital cities and demonstrators surrounded the [[Palace of the Nation]]. On 28 May, Leopold called in troops to calm the protests and angrily declared: "I will ride on horseback if necessary to protect the national representation; I will not allow the majority to be outraged; I will crush these scoundrels."{{sfn|de Lichtervelde|1929|p=288}} As rioting continued, Leopold suggested that the articles in the Bill be separated, but de Decker denounced him and soon abandoned it completely. Leopold sent him a letter, which was published in the ''[[Belgian Official Gazette|Moniteur]]'', in which he criticised the government and wrote: "It was not I who abandoned them in 1857, it was they who abandoned me. I was ready to ride a horse, I wouldn't have backed down. They left me in the presence of disorder; they reduced me to giving in to disorder and no one could understand how profound such humiliation was."{{sfn|de Lichtervelde|1929|p=298}}

On 9 November 1857, after de Decker resigned and the government fell, Rogier returned to office and formed a Liberal government, which lasted for ten years and went on to outlive Leopold. Rogier also held the position of [[Minister of the Interior (Belgium)|Minister of the Interior]], with parliamentarians [[Walthère Frère-Orban]] and [[Victor Tesch]] assuming other different ministries. This new government acted by the Constitution, but took an anticlerical attitude due to the protests.{{sfn|de Lichtervelde|1929|p=338}} In 1861, the government introduced new legislation regarded scholarships, which took funding away from Catholic cemeteries as a punishment for the previous government who had done the same for atheist cemeteries.{{sfn|de Lichtervelde|1929|p=342}} Leopold was strongly against these anti-religious stances taken by Rogier's Cabinet, but remained impartial per his constitutional role as a neutral figurehead, though he did threaten to override new changes if it was made clear they were not the will of the majority. However, after 1857, Leopold's main concern for Belgium is its defence and he was glad when Antwerp was chosen as the future development site of the [[National Redoubt (Belgium)|National Redoubt]].{{sfn|de Lichtervelde|1929|p=342-345}}

In 1859, a statue of Leopold was erected at the top of the [[Congress Column]] to mark his earlier Silver Jubilee.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Revue politique|journal=Journal de Bruxelles|date=29 September 1859|pages=1|url=https://www.belgicapress.be/pageview.php?all_q=absent%20colonne%20congr%C3%A8s&any_q=&exact_q=&none_q=&from_d=20-09-1859&to_d=02-10-1859&per_lang=&per=&sig=JB567&lang=FR}}</ref> On 12 June, Leopold is also delighted by the birth of his first grandson, [[Prince Leopold, Duke of Brabant|Prince Leopold]]. Furthermore, in 1860, Leopold again visited each provincial capital city despite being ill and his declining health. Upon his return to Brussels in September 1860, Leopold decided to no longer preside over the Council of Ministers and to roll back on his other duties due to his aging condition. Additionally, all of Leopold's mail was now read by and responded to by Van Praet, instead of by Leopold directly.{{sfn|de Lichtervelde|1929|p=351}}

====Interests in the Americas====
Unlike Leopold's elder son, Leopold's daughter, Charlotte, personally chose her husband of Archduke Maximilian, the younger brother of Emperor Franz Joseph I. Leopold preferred that she married his great-nephew, [[Peter V of Portugal]], but did not oppose her decision.{{sfn|Stengers|1972|pp=63-64}} A few weeks after their wedding, in September 1857, Maximilian was appointed Viceroy of the [[Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia]]. During the [[Austro-Sardinian War]], Leopold gave unwanted strategic advice to Franz Joseph, who mocked and did not follow it. When Austria lost Lombardy, Leopold advised Prussia to assemble an army on the [[Rhine]], which was seen as Leopold taking the Prussian side in the [[Austro-Prussian rivalry]].{{sfn|de Lichtervelde|1929|pp=332-333}}

[[File:Charles Lahalle - expédition du Mexique.jpg|thumb|left|Painting of the Belgian Legion in Mexico by the artist Charles Lahalle]]
In 1861, the [[American Civil War]] broke out and despite Belgian neutrality, Leopold favoured the [[Confederate States]] due to the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]]'s imposition of economic blockades, including the refusal to export South American goods to Europe.<ref>{{Cite journal|first=Francis |last=Balace|title=Leopold I and European Intervention in the American Civil War (September 1862 – January 1863)|journal=Belgian Journal of Contemporary History|year=1969|issue=1|url=https://www.journalbelgianhistory.be/nl/system/files/article_pdf/BTNG-RBHC%2C%2001%2C%201969%2C%201%2C%20pp%20132-160.pdf|access-date=19 August 2024|pages=132–160}}</ref> According to historian Francis Balace, Leopold played an important role as a mediator between the United States and the rest of Europe, as well as in convincing other European states to back the South. In contrast, historian Jacques Portes has downplayed the significance of Leopold's role by painting him as an ineffective transmitter of correspondence between the two sides with little care for Belgium's impartiality.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Portes|first=Jacques|title=Balace (Francis): La Belgique et la guerre de Sécession, 1861-1865. Étude diplomatique|journal=Outre-Mers. Revue d'histoire|volume=66|issue=244|pages=494|year=1979|url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/outre_0300-9513_1979_num_66_244_4606_t1_0494_0000_4|access-date=2024-08-18}}</ref>

[[File:Photograph of Leopold I, King of the Belgians.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Leopold {{circa|1860–65}}]]
In Mexico, President [[Benito Juárez]] suspended the country's payment of its foreign debt in July 1861, to the displeasure of Great Britain, France and Spain. Napoleon III took it as an opportunity to [[Second French intervention in Mexico|intervene in Mexico]], aiming to spread Catholicism and the influence of the United States in the Americas.<ref name="Bruley">{{Cite journal|last=Bruley|first=Yves|title=Le rêve mexicain de Napoléon III vire au cauchemar|journal=Historia|date=30 June 2007|issue=727|url=https://archive.today/20130106211633/http://www.historia.fr/mensuel/727/le-reve-mexicain-de-napoleon-iii-vire-au-cauchemar-01-07-2007-51952}}</ref> He offered the imperial crown of Mexico to Maximilian as an apology to Austria for earlier siding with Sardinia. Much to the delight of Leopold, Maximilian accepted and left Austria with Charlotte for Mexico, arriving in Mexico City on 12 June 1864 despite armed opposition from republicans. Leopold encouraged the sending of a [[Belgian Legion]], composed of 4000 male volunteers, to support his daughter.<ref name="Bruley" /> The Legion was badly defeated by republican forces at the [[Battle of Tacámbaro]] in April 1865, but was victorious in July under the command of Lieutenant Colonel [[Alfred van der Smissen]].<ref name="Jacqueline Hons">{{Cite journal|last=Hons|first=Jacqueline|title=La légion belge au Mexique|journal=Revue Ami|issue=26|date=November 1981}}</ref> When the American Civil War ended, the United States government signalled its support for Juárez.<ref name="Bruley"/> Maximilian and Charlotte asked Leopold for some advice, but the helpless aging monarch merely replied, "God bless you, I can no longer help you."{{sfn|Defrance|2004|p=344}} The strong Mexican resistance and failure to push back against it led to Napoleon III abandoning Mexico on 15 January 1866. Charlotte escaped Mexico in July to get assistance from European states, who ignored her and left Maximilian, who refused to abdicate and was later executed on 18 June 1867.<ref name="Bruley"/>{{sfn|Bilteryst|2014|pp=166-169}}

====Final years====
Until the age of 70, Leopold endured relatively good health. However, in 1861, he faced several problems that severely affected him. His sister, Princess Victoria, died in March and his great-nephew, Peter V, aged 24, died of typhoid fever in November, only weeks before his brother, [[Infante João, Duke of Beja]], also died.{{sfn|Bilteryst|2014|p=149}} Additionally, his nephew, Albert, died in December. Leopold attended his funeral to support his niece, Queen Victoria, and during this time suffered from kidney stones. Leopold underwent a [[lithotripsy]] in the following March and many more in the subsequent months. Despite his health issues, Leopold was still able to engage in leisure activities, such as hunting, however he suffered a stroke at the beginning of 1865. His health continued to decline for the remainder of the year.{{sfn|Bilteryst|2014|pp=153-155}}