Editing Kingdom of Jerusalem (section)

=== Byzantine alliance and invasion of Egypt ===
[[File:manuelcomnenus.jpg|right|thumb|[[Byzantine Emperor]] [[Manuel I Comnenus]], who became a close ally of the Kingdom of Jerusalem.]]
With the capture of Ascalon the southern border of the kingdom was now secure, and Egypt, formerly a major threat to the kingdom but now destabilized under the reign of several underaged caliphs, was reduced to a tributary state. Nur ad-Din remained a threat in the east, and Baldwin had to contend with the advances of the Byzantine emperor [[Manuel I Comnenus]], who claimed suzerainty over the Principality of Antioch. In order to bolster the defences of the kingdom against the growing strength of the Muslims, Baldwin III made the first direct alliance with the Byzantine Empire, by marrying [[Theodora Komnene, Queen of Jerusalem|Theodora Comnena]], a niece of emperor Manuel; Manuel married Baldwin's cousin [[Maria of Antioch|Maria]].<ref>Madden, pp. 64–65.</ref> As William of Tyre put it, it was hoped that Manuel would be able "to relieve from his own abundance the distress under which our realm was suffering and to change our poverty into superabundance".<ref>William of Tyre, vol. II, bk. 18 ch. 16, pg. 265.</ref>

The relationship between Byzantium and Jerusalem has divided historians, with some historians supporting the Byzantine interpretation that Amalric recognised Manuel as his overlord, while other scholars such as Andrew Jotischky see the relationship as one of Byzantine protection of Orthodox Christians in Jerusalem.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Andrew Jotischky |title=Crusading and the Crusader States |date=2014 |publisher=Taylor and Francis |isbn=9781317876021 |page=94}}</ref>

When Baldwin died childless in 1162, a year after his mother Melisende, the kingdom passed to his brother Amalric, who renewed the alliance negotiated by Baldwin. In 1163 the chaotic situation in Egypt led to a refusal to pay tribute to Jerusalem, and requests were sent to Nur ad-Din for assistance; in response, [[Crusader invasions of Egypt|Amalric invaded]], but was turned back when the Egyptians flooded the Nile at [[Bilbeis]]. The Egyptian vizier [[Shawar]] again requested help from Nur ad-Din, who sent his general [[Shirkuh]], but Shawar quickly turned against him and allied with Amalric. Amalric and Shirkuh both besieged Bilbeis in 1164, but both withdrew due to Nur ad-Din's campaigns against Antioch, where [[Bohemond III of Antioch]] and [[Raymond III of Tripoli]] were defeated at the [[Battle of Harim]]. It seemed likely that Antioch itself would fall to Nur ad-Din, but he withdrew when Emperor Manuel sent a large Byzantine force to the area. Nur ad-Din sent Shirkuh back to Egypt in 1166, and Shawar again allied with Amalric, who was defeated at the [[Battle of al-Babein]]. Despite the defeat, both sides withdrew, but Shawar remained in control with a crusader garrison in Cairo.{{Sfn|Tyerman|2006|pp=347–348}}{{sfn|Mayer|1988|pages=118–119}} Amalric cemented his alliance with Manuel by marrying Manuel's niece [[Maria Komnene, Queen consort of Jerusalem|Maria Komnene]] in 1167, and an embassy led by William of Tyre was sent to Constantinople to negotiate a military expedition, but in 1168 Amalric pillaged Bilbeis without waiting for the naval support promised by Manuel. Amalric accomplished nothing else, but his actions prompted Shawar to switch sides again and seek help from Shirkuh. Shawar was promptly assassinated, and when Shirkuh died in 1169, he was succeeded by his nephew Yusuf, better known as [[Saladin]]. That year, Manuel sent a large Byzantine fleet of some 300 ships to assist Amalric, and the town of [[Damietta]] was placed under siege. However, the Byzantine fleet sailed with enough provisions for only three months. By the time the Crusaders were ready, supplies were already running out and the fleet retired. Each side sought to blame the other for the failure, but both knew that they could not take Egypt without the other's assistance: the alliance was maintained, and plans for another campaign in Egypt were made, which ultimately were to come to nought.{{sfn|Mayer|1988|pages=119–120}}

In the end, Nur ad-Din was victorious and Saladin established himself as [[Sultan of Egypt]]. Saladin soon began to assert his independence from Nur ad-Din, and with the death of both Amalric and Nur ad-Din in 1174, he was well-placed to begin exerting control over Nur ad-Din's Syrian possessions as well.{{Sfn|Tyerman|2006|p=350}} Upon the death of the pro-western Emperor Manuel in 1180, the Kingdom of Jerusalem lost its most powerful ally.

The subsequent events have often been interpreted as a struggle between two opposing factions, the "court party", made up of Baldwin's mother, Amalric's first wife [[Agnes of Courtenay]], her [[House of Courtenay|immediate family]], and recent arrivals from Europe who were inexperienced in the affairs of the kingdom and who were in favour of war with Saladin; and the "noble party", led by Raymond of Tripoli and the lesser nobility of the kingdom, who favoured peaceful co-existence with the Muslims. This is the interpretation offered by [[William of Tyre]], who was firmly placed in the "noble" camp, and his view was taken up by subsequent historians; in the 20th century, [[Marshall W. Baldwin]],<ref>Marshall W. Baldwin, "The Decline and Fall of Jerusalem, 1174–1189", in ''A History of the Crusades'' (gen. ed. Kenneth M. Setton), vol. 1: The First Hundred Years (ed. Marshall W. Baldwin, University of Wisconsin Press, 1969), pg. 592ff.</ref> [[Steven Runciman]],<ref>[[Steven Runciman]], ''A History of the Crusades'', vol. 2: The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Frankish East (Cambridge University Press, 1952), pg. 404.</ref> and [[Hans E. Mayer]]{{sfn|Mayer|1988|pages=127–128}} favoured this interpretation. [[Peter W. Edbury]], on the other hand, argues that William, as well as the thirteenth-century authors who continued William's chronicle in French and were allied to Raymond's supporters in the Ibelin family, cannot be considered impartial.<ref>Peter W. Edbury, "Propaganda and faction in the Kingdom of Jerusalem: the background to Hattin", in ''Crusaders and Moslems in Twelfth-Century Syria'' (ed. Maya Shatzmiller, Leiden: Brill, 1993), pg. 174.</ref> Although the events were clearly a dynastic struggle, {{qi|the division was not between native barons and newcomers from the West, but between the king's maternal and paternal kin.}}{{Sfn|Hamilton|2000|p=158}}

[[Miles of Plancy]] was briefly [[Officers of the Kingdom of Jerusalem#Bailiffs|''bailli'']] or regent during [[Baldwin IV]]'s minority. Miles was assassinated in October 1174, and Count [[Raymond III of Tripoli]], Amalric's first cousin, became regent. It is highly probable that Raymond or his supporters engineered the assassination.{{Sfn|Hamilton|2000|p=93}} Baldwin reached his majority in 1176, and despite his illness he no longer had any legal need for a regent. Since Raymond was his nearest relative in the male line with a strong claim to the throne, there was concern about the extent of his ambitions, although he had no direct heirs of his own. To balance this, the king turned from time to time to his uncle, [[Joscelin III of Edessa]], who was appointed seneschal in 1176; Joscelin was more closely related to Baldwin than Raymond was, but had no claim to the throne himself.{{Sfn|Hamilton|2000|pp=105–106}}

As a leper, Baldwin had no children and could not be expected to rule much longer, so the focus of his succession passed to his sister [[Sibylla of Jerusalem|Sibylla]] and his younger half-sister [[Isabella I of Jerusalem|Isabella]]. Baldwin and his advisors recognised that it was essential for Sibylla to be married to a Western nobleman in order to access support from European states in a military crisis; while Raymond was still regent, a marriage was arranged for Sibylla and [[William of Montferrat, Count of Jaffa and Ascalon|William of Montferrat]], a cousin of Louis VII of France and of [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick Barbarossa, Holy Roman Emperor]]. It was hoped that by allying with a relative of the Western emperor, Frederick would come to the kingdom's aid.{{Sfn|Hamilton|2000|p=101}} Jerusalem looked again towards the Byzantine Empire for help, and Emperor Manuel was looking for a way to restore his empire's prestige after his defeat at the [[Battle of Myriokephalon]] in 1176; this mission was undertaken by [[Raynald of Châtillon]].{{Sfn|Hamilton|2000|p=115}} After William of Montferrat arrived in 1176, he fell ill and died in June 1177, leaving Sibylla widowed and pregnant with the future [[Baldwin V of Jerusalem|Baldwin V]]. Raynald was then named regent.{{Sfn|Hamilton|2000|p=118}}

[[File:Plan of Jerusalem, 12th Century. ca. 1200.jpg|right|thumb|An idealized twelfth-century map of the crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem.]]
Soon afterwards, [[Philip I, Count of Flanders|Philip of Flanders]] arrived in Jerusalem on [[Christian pilgrimage|pilgrimage]]; he was Baldwin IV's cousin, and the king offered him the regency and command of the army, both of which Philip refused, although he objected to the appointment of Raynald as regent. Philip then attempted to intervene in the negotiations for Sibylla's second husband, and suggested one of his own retinue, but the native barons refused his suggestion. In addition, Philip seemed to think he could carve out a territory of his own in Egypt, but he refused to participate in the planned Byzantine-Jerusalem expedition. The expedition was delayed and finally cancelled, and Philip took his army away to the north.{{Sfn|Hamilton|2000|pp=122–130}}

Most of the army of Jerusalem marched north with Philip, Raymond III, and Bohemond III to attack [[Hama]], and Saladin took the opportunity to invade the kingdom. Baldwin proved to be an effective and energetic king as well as a brilliant military commander: he defeated Saladin at the [[Battle of Montgisard]] in September 1177 despite being greatly outnumbered and having to rely on a [[levee-en-masse]]. Although Baldwin's presence despite his illness was inspirational, direct military decisions were actually made by Raynald.{{Sfn|Hamilton|2000|pp=132–136}}

[[Hugh III of Burgundy]] was expected to come to Jerusalem and marry Sibylla, but Hugh was unable to leave France due to the political unrest there in 1179–1180 following the death of Louis VII. Meanwhile, Baldwin IV's stepmother Maria, mother of Isabella and stepmother of Sibylla, married [[Balian of Ibelin]]. At Easter in 1180, Raymond and his cousin [[Bohemond III of Antioch]] attempted to force Sibylla to marry Balian's brother [[Baldwin of Ibelin]]. Raymond and Bohemond were King Baldwin's nearest male relatives in the paternal line, and could have claimed the throne if the king died without an heir or a suitable replacement. Before Raymond and Bohemond arrived, Agnes and King Baldwin arranged for Sibylla to be married to a [[Poitou|Poitevin]] newcomer, [[Guy of Lusignan]], whose older brother [[Amalric II of Jerusalem|Amalric of Lusignan]] was already an established figure at court.{{Sfn|Hamilton|2000|pp=150–158}} Internationally, the Lusignans were useful as vassals of Baldwin and Sibylla's cousin [[Henry II of England]]. Baldwin betrothed eight-year-old Isabella to [[Humphrey IV of Toron]], stepson of the powerful [[Raynald of Châtillon]], thereby removing her from the influence of the [[Ibelin family]] and that of her mother.{{Sfn|Hamilton|2000|p=161}}

The dispute between the two factions in the kingdom affected the election of a new Patriarch in 1180. When Patriarch Amalric died on 6 October 1180, the two most obvious choices for his successor were William of Tyre and Heraclius of Caesarea. They were fairly evenly matched in background and education, but politically they were allied with opposite parties, as Heraclius was one of Agnes of Courtenay's supporters. The canons of the Holy Sepulchre asked the king for advice, and Heraclius was chosen through Agnes' influence. There were rumours that Agnes and Heraclius were lovers, but this information comes from the partisan 13th-century continuations of William of Tyre's history, and there is no other evidence to substantiate such a claim.<ref>Hamilton, pp. 162–163; Edbury and Rowe, "William of Tyre and the Patriarchal election of 1180", ''[[The English Historical Review]]'' 93 (1978), repr. ''Kingdoms of the Crusaders: From Jerusalem to Cyprus'' (Aldershot: Ashgate, Variorum Collected Series Studies, 1999), pp. 23–25.</ref>

At the end of 1181, Raynald of Châtillon raided south into Arabia, in the direction of [[Medina]], although he did not make it that far. It was probably around this time that Raynald also attacked a Muslim caravan. The kingdom had a truce with Saladin at the time, and Raynald's actions have been seen as an independent act of brigandage; it is possible that he was trying to prevent Saladin from moving his forces north to take control of Aleppo, which would have strengthened Saladin's position.{{Sfn|Hamilton|2000|pp=170–171}} In response, Saladin attacked the kingdom in 1182, but was defeated at [[Battle of Belvoir Castle (1182)|Belvoir Castle]]. King Baldwin, although quite ill, was still able to command the army in person. Saladin attempted to besiege Beirut from land and sea, and Baldwin raided Damascene territory, but neither side did significant damage. In December 1182, [[Crusader Red Sea raids|Raynald launched a naval expedition]] on the [[Red Sea]], which made it as far south as [[Rabigh]]. The expedition was defeated and two of Raynald's men were actually taken to [[Mecca]] to be executed in public. Like his earlier raids, Raynald's expedition is usually seen as selfish and ultimately fatal for Jerusalem, but according to Bernard Hamilton, it was actually a shrewd strategy, meant to damage Saladin's prestige and reputation.{{Sfn|Hamilton|2000|pp=174–183}}

In 1183 a general tax was levied throughout the kingdom, which was unprecedented in Jerusalem and almost all of medieval Europe to that point. The tax helped pay for larger armies for the next few years. More troops were certainly needed, since Saladin was finally able to gain control of Aleppo, and with peace in his northern territories, he could focus on Jerusalem in the south. King Baldwin was so incapacitated by his leprosy that it was necessary to appoint a regent, and Guy of Lusignan was chosen, as he was Baldwin's legal heir and the king was not expected to live. The inexperienced Guy led the Frankish army against Saladin's incursions into the kingdom, but neither side made any real gains, and Guy was criticized by his opponents for not striking against Saladin when he had the chance.{{Sfn|Hamilton|2000|pp=186–192}}

In October 1183, Isabella married Humphrey of Toron at [[Kerak]] during a [[siege of Kerak|siege]] by Saladin, who perhaps hoped to take some valuable prisoners. As King Baldwin, although now blind and crippled, had recovered enough to resume his reign and his command of the army, Guy was removed from the regency and his five-year-old stepson, King Baldwin's nephew [[Baldwin V of Jerusalem|and namesake Baldwin]], was crowned as co-king in November. King Baldwin himself then went to relieve the castle, carried on a litter, and attended by his mother. He was reconciled with Raymond of Tripoli and appointed him military commander. The siege was lifted in December and Saladin retreated to Damascus.{{Sfn|Hamilton|2000|pp=192–196}} Saladin attempted another siege in 1184, but Baldwin repelled that attack as well, and Saladin raided [[Nablus]] and other towns on the way home.{{Sfn|Hamilton|2000|pp=202–203}}

In October 1184, Guy of Lusignan led an attack on the [[Bedouin]] nomads from his base in Ascalon. Unlike Raynald's attacks on caravans, which may have had some military purpose, Guy attacked a group that was usually loyal to Jerusalem and provided intelligence about the movements of Saladin's troops. At the same time, King Baldwin contracted his final illness and Raymond of Tripoli, rather than Guy, was appointed as his regent. His nephew Baldwin was paraded in public, wearing his crown as Baldwin V. Baldwin IV finally succumbed to his leprosy in May 1185.{{Sfn|Hamilton|2000|pp=204–210}}

Meanwhile, the succession crisis had prompted a mission to the West to seek assistance. In 1184, Patriarch Heraclius travelled throughout the courts of Europe, but no help was forthcoming. Heraclius offered the {{qi|keys of the Holy Sepulchre, those of the Tower of David and the banner of the Kingdom of Jerusalem}}, but not the crown itself, to both [[Philip II of France]] and [[Henry II of England]]; the latter, as a grandson of Fulk, was a first cousin of the royal family of Jerusalem, and had promised to go on crusade after the murder of [[Thomas Becket]]. Both kings preferred to remain at home to defend their own territories, rather than act as regent for a child in Jerusalem. The few European knights who did travel to Jerusalem did not even see any combat, since the truce with Saladin had been re-established. [[William V of Montferrat]] was one of the few who came to his grandson Baldwin V's aid.{{Sfn|Hamilton|2000|pp=212–216}}

[[File:Balduins tomb.jpg|thumb|The tomb of Baldwin V on an 18th-century drawing by [[Elzear Horn]]]]
Baldwin V's rule, with Raymond of Tripoli as regent and his great-uncle Joscelin of Edessa as his guardian, was short. He was a sickly child and died in the summer of 1186. Raymond and his supporters went to Nablus, presumably in an attempt to prevent Sibylla from claiming the throne, but Sibylla and her supporters went to Jerusalem, where it was decided that the kingdom should pass to her, on the condition that her marriage to Guy be annulled. She agreed but only if she could choose her own husband and king, and after being crowned, she immediately crowned Guy with her own hands. Raymond had refused to attend the coronation, and in Nablus he suggested that Isabella and Humphrey should be crowned instead, but Humphrey refused to agree to this plan which would have certainly started a civil war. Humphrey went to Jerusalem and swore allegiance to Guy and Sibylla, as did most of Raymond's other supporters. Raymond himself refused to do so and left for Tripoli; [[Baldwin of Ibelin]] also refused, gave up his fiefs, and left for Antioch.{{Sfn|Hamilton|2000|pp=216–223}}