Editing Infant baptism (section)

== Historical development ==

=== First century ===
First-century Christian baptism primarily involved adult believers, with no definitive [[New Testament]] evidence for infant baptism, though some suggest household baptisms may have included infants.<ref>Lawson, K. E. (2011). Baptismal theology and practices and the spiritual nurture of children: Part I: early and medieval church. Christian Education Journal, 8(1), 130+. "Though hotly debated, it is unclear whether or not children in the church during the New Testament era were baptized. Examples shared in the Bible generally either focus on adult believers receiving baptism" (p. 131).</ref><ref>Livingstone, E. A. (Ed.). (2006). T''he concise Oxford dictionary of the Christian church.'' Oxford University Press. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/acref/9780199659623.001.0001</nowiki>

"Although from the first baptism was the universal means of entry into the Christian community, the NT [New Testament] contains no specific authority for its administration to infants" (Livingstone, 2006, p. 94).</ref><ref>McMaken, W. T. (2013). The Sign of the Gospel: Toward an Evangelical Doctrine of Infant Baptism After Karl Barth. United States: Fortress Press. "While some claim to find traces of infant baptism in the New Testament, the scholarly consensus is that no clear, indisputable evidence of the practice is present. On the other hand, there is likewise no clear, indisputable evidence that infant baptism did not occur in the earliest Christian communities" (p.14).</ref><ref>Douglas, J. D., Toon, P. (2023). The Concise Dictionary of the Christian Tradition: Doctrine, Liturgy, History. United States: Zondervan. "Though there are no explicit statements that babies were baptized in the apostolic period, proponents of infant baptism see it as highly probable that they wereincluded in the households which were baptized (Acts 16:15, 31)" (p. 47-48).</ref> Scholarly consensus holds that infant baptism emerged gradually from the late 2nd century, became widespread by the 3rd century, and was universal by the 4th-5th centuries, coexisting with believers' baptism (''[[Acts of the Apostles]]'' 2:38–41) amid early debates.<ref>Kärkkäinen, V. (2021). An Introduction to Ecclesiology: Historical, Global, and Interreligious Perspectives. United Kingdom: IVP Academic. "In light of current scholarship, it is clear that infant baptism was a new development in relation to the New Testament and the earliest patristic theology. It emerged slowly and sporadically in various Christian locations; its legitimacy had to be demonstrated (Origen) and was sometimes outright rejected (Tertullian). This momentous shift developed gradually from the end of the second century. Not earlier than the end of the fourth and beginning of the fifth century, infant baptism established itself as the main mode of baptism. For the first five centuries of Christian history, believers' baptism and infant baptism coexisted" (p. 212).</ref><ref>Harper's Encyclopedia of Religious Education. (1990). United Kingdom: Harper & Row. "In addition, the spread of infant baptism, which began to take root in the third century, contributed to the disappearance of the catechumenate" (p. 104)</ref><ref>Johnson, M.  (2018, April 26). The Development of the “Apostolic Tradition” in Early Christian Worship. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion. Retrieved 28 Apr. 2025, from <nowiki>https://oxfordre.com/religion/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-526</nowiki>. "Along with these specific ritual details, 3rd-century sources also show that infant baptism, including infant communion, was being practiced widely. Indeed, it was considered a normative practice in many early Christian communities."</ref><ref>Gassmann, G., Larson, D. H., Oldenburg, M. W. (2001). Historical Dictionary of Lutheranism. United States: Scarecrow Press. "...the catechumenate, fell out of use as infant baptism, attested around the year 200, became universal in the fourth and fifth centuries. Following the foundational teaching of Augustine that in baptism guilt and original sin are remitted, in 418 the Synod of Carthage decreed that infants must be baptized in order to be freed from original sin" (p. 34).</ref><ref name=":0">Nicoletti, S. A. (2015, November 1). ''Infant baptism in the first-century presupposition pool''. ''[[Tyndale Bulletin]]'', 66(2). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.53751/001c.29399</nowiki></ref><ref>Lynch, J. H. (2019). Godparents and Kinship in Early Medieval Europe. United States: Princeton University Press. "In 1938, and in a revised edition of 1958, Joachim Jeremias published a work challenging the scholarly consensus that held infant baptism to be unattested in the New Testament or in second-century Christian sources" (p. 117).</ref>

Historian [[David F. Wright]] (2007,2005), suggests that first-century [[Pauline Christianity|Pauline churches]] did not practice infant baptism. Wright describes the issue as "obscurity unresolved," noting that evidence suggests children of baptized Christians were typically not baptized until at least c. 55 AD, during Paul's ministry, though the extent of this practice remains unclear.<ref name=":022">Wright, D. F. (2007). ''Infant baptism in historical perspective: Collected studies''. (p. 20). Wipf and Stock Publishers.</ref><ref name="Wright The apostolic fathers and infant baptism">{{cite book |doi=10.1093/oso/9780199267835.003.0008 |chapter=The Apostolic Fathers and Infant Baptism: Any Advance on the Obscurity of the New Testament? |title=Trajectories Through the New Testament and the Apostolic Fathers |date=2005 |last1=Wright |first1=David F. |pages=123–134 |isbn=978-0-19-926783-5}}</ref>

Despite this, some theologians argue for the early presence of infant baptism. [[Joachim Jeremias]] (2004) and [[William Strange (priest)|William A. Strange]] (1996) argue that infant baptism originated in the Apostolic Age, asserting that children of converts were baptized alongside their families.<ref name=":82">Strange, W. A. (1996). ''Children in the early church: Children in the ancient world, the New Testament and the early church''. Wipf & Stock, p. 123.</ref><ref name=":92">Jeremias, J. (2004). Infant baptism in the first four centuries. Wipf & Stock Publishers. pp. 20-22.</ref> Advocates cite households baptisms within ''[[Acts of the Apostles]]'' (16:15, 33) and ''[[First Epistle to the Corinthians|1 Corinthians]]'' 1:16 as potential evidence. However, the ''Global Dictionary of Theology'' (2009) acknowledges the ambiguity of these accounts, stating that while infants may have been included, the texts do not provide explicit confirmation.<ref name=":122">{{cite book |title=Global Dictionary of Theology: A Resource for the Worldwide Church |date=2009 |publisher=InterVarsity Press |isbn=978-0-8308-7811-6 |editor1-last=Dyrness |editor1-first=William A. |page=99 |editor2-last=Kärkkäinen |editor2-first=Veli-Matti}}</ref> Jeremias argues that baptism extended to all household members because the [[Old Testament]] concept of “household” is inherently inclusive, drawing upon interpretations of [[1 Samuel 22]]:16–19 and [[Lech-Lecha|Genesis 17]]:23.<ref name=":92" /> Therefore, the term "house" (''oikos'') has been central to this debate.{{sfn|Bakke|2005|pp=224–227}}

Steven Nicoletti (2015), proposes that the New Testament’s silence on infant baptism may affirm its practice, drawing on the concept of “[[presupposition]] pools”—shared assumptions of the time. They argue that early Christian texts likely omitted explicit mention of infant baptism because it was widely accepted, mirroring cultural norms where infants were naturally included in religious rites.<ref name=":0" />

Another line of reasoning explores parallels with [[Jewish culture|Jewish traditions]]. The analogy between [[Circumcision#Judaism|circumcision]] and baptism is a key argument for early infant baptism. In [[Jewish culture|Jewish tradition]], boys were circumcised on the [[Shemini Atzeret|eighth day]], and some scholars suggest early [[Jewish Christianity|Jewish Christians]] viewed baptism similarly.{{sfn|Bakke|2005|pp=224–227}} Additionally, [[Proselyte#In Judaism|Jewish proselyte baptism]] included entire households, including children, as a purification rite for [[Gentile]] converts to [[Judaism]].<ref>Ferguson, E. (2009). Baptism in the early church: History, theology, and liturgy in the first five centuries. Eerdmans. pp. 78–80.</ref> Theologian [[Kurt Aland]] (2004) counters that this was not standard for Jewish-born children, who were typically incorporated via circumcision, not baptism, weakening the parallel to Christian practice.{{sfn|Aland|2004|pp=54–57}}

Further insight comes from early Christian texts addressing the [[Sin|sinfulness]] of infants or young children. [[Clement of Rome]] ([[First Epistle of Clement|1 Clement]] 14.4) stated, "No one is clean from defilement, not even if his life be but one day old." Although later used out of context, this became a proof-text for baptism addressing [[original sin]].<ref name="Wright The apostolic fathers and infant baptism" /> This view aligns with [[Psalm 51]]:5, which states, "Behold, I was brought forth in iniquity, and in sin did my mother conceive me," supporting the early Christian belief in humanity’s inherent sinfulness from birth.<ref>Boaheng, I., & Twumasi-Ankrah, E. (2024). Exegetical and theological analysis of Psalm 51:1-12. ''International Journal of Social Science Research and Review, 7''(1), 504–517. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.47814/ijssrr.v7i1.1962</nowiki></ref> Similarly, the [[Didache]], a church order dated to the late 1st or early 2nd century, provides instructions for [[Believer's baptism|adult baptism]] but notes that children should receive teaching to prevent future sin, without explicitly addressing their baptism.<ref>Jefford, C. N. (1989). ''The sayings of Jesus in the Teaching of the Twelve Apostles''. Brill. pp. 87-88.</ref> Early 1st-century Christian texts, like 1 Clement and Psalm 51:5, highlight universal sinfulness, linking baptism to sin’s remission and laying groundwork for the doctrine of original sin, later justifying infant baptism. Yet, direct evidence for the practice in this period is absent, leaving its prevalence uncertain.<ref>Ferguson, E. (1979, April). Inscriptions and the origin of infant baptism. The Journal of Theological Studies, 30(1), 37–46.</ref>

=== Second century ===
Most of second-century Christian texts provide no explicit evidence for the practice of infant baptism.<ref name=":122" />{{sfn|Bakke|2005|pp=224–227}} However, scholars like Wright and Aland identify literary traces emerging by the late second century.{{sfn|Aland|2004|p=10}}<ref name=":022" />{{sfn|Bakke|2005|pp=224–227}} For example, the first clear reference to infant baptism comes from [[Tertullian]], who opposed it or advocated for its delay. In ''On Baptism'' (c. 200 AD), he acknowledges it as an established custom but argues against it, suggesting that baptism should be delayed until individuals can personally profess faith.<ref name=":32">{{cite book |last1=Ferguson |first1=Everett |title=Early Christians Speak: Faith and Life in the First Three Centuries |date=1999 |publisher=ACU Press |isbn=978-0-89112-045-2 |edition=3 |page=58 |jstor=j.ctv1k3nq1f}}</ref> Strange (1996) observed that Tertullian’s opposition to infant baptism marked a departure from prevailing practice, arguing that [[Patristics|patristic]] evidence suggests it was already a recognized norm.<ref name=":82" /> Additionally, Nuh Yilmaz (2020) notes that Tertullian's view did not resonate effectively in North African churches, where infant baptism continued as the general practice.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yılmaz |first1=Nuh |date=30 June 2020 |title=Tertullian's Understanding of Baptism |journal=Amasya İlahiyat Dergisi |issue=14 |pages=375–402 |doi=10.18498/amailad.693914}}</ref> [[North Africa]] remained the region with the strongest support for infant baptism, and according to Ferguson (1999) it may well have been where the practice originated.<ref name=":32" />
[[File:Tertullian2.png|left|thumb|244x244px|[[Tertullian]] (c. 160–220 AD) opposed infant baptism in his writings, provides the first clear evidence of its practice in early [[Christianity in the Roman Africa province|North African Christianity]]]]
Additionally, some advocates cite [[Irenaeus|Irenaeus of Lyon]] who wrote that "infants, small children, youngsters, youths, and old folk" are "born again".<ref name=":122" /> Scholars such as Odd Magne Bakke (2005) and David P. Nelson (1996) interpret this as a reference to baptism, though Bakke qualifies that "reborn" (''renascuntur'') must be understood as a technical term for baptism.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal |last1=Nelson |first1=M. E. |date=25 June 1996 |title=Catechesis and baptism in the early Christian church |journal=In die Skriflig/In Luce Verbi |volume=30 |issue=4 |doi=10.4102/ids.v30i4.1588}}</ref>{{sfn|Bakke|2005|pp=224–227}}{{sfn|Bakke|2005|pp=224–227}} Conversely, Peter Jenson (2012) and Robert L. Meyers (1988) argue that the statement lacks specificity regarding infants.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Meyers |first1=Ruth A. |title=Infant Communion: Reflections on the Case from Tradition |journal=Anglican and Episcopal History |date=1988 |volume=57 |issue=2 |pages=159–175 |jstor=42610259 }}</ref><ref name="Jensen Material and documentary evidence">{{cite journal |last1=Jensen |first1=Robin M. |title=Material and Documentary Evidence for the Practice of Early Christian Baptism |journal=Journal of Early Christian Studies |date=2012 |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=371–405 |id={{Project MUSE|485368}} {{ProQuest|1081167146}} |doi=10.1353/earl.2012.0019 }}</ref>

Regardless, Christianity was growing in popularity and expansion during this period, structured [[catechesis]] became essential to prepare converts for faith amid persecution and [[Heresy#Christianity|heresies]]. This formalized approach to baptism, emphasizing instruction, according to Nelson (1996) likely reduced the practice of infant baptism, which required no prior preparation.<ref name=":1" />

Insights into early [[Christian apologetics|Christian apologists]] viewed infants and young children as sinless or morally innocent. Notable examples include'':[[The Shepherd of Hermas]]'' (c. 100–150 AD) which portrays children as models of [[Disciple (Christianity)|discipleship]] and moral purity, inherently innocent and free of evil, serving as an example for believers.<ref name="Wright The apostolic fathers and infant baptism" /><ref>''The Shepherd of Hermas'', Similitude 9, Chapter 29, verses 1–3 (Sim. 9.29.1–3).</ref> [[Aristides of Athens]] (''Apology'', Chapter 15, c. 125 AD) wrote that Christian children are born [[Impeccability|sinless]] and, if they [[Infant mortality|die in infancy]], are celebrated for passing from life without sin: “And when a child is born to one of them, the Christians give thanks to God; and if the child dies in infancy, they give thanks even more, for it has passed from this life sinless.”<ref name=":622">{{cite book |last1=Ferguson |first1=Everett |title=Early Christians Speak |date=1999 |publisher=ACU Press |isbn=978-0-89112-045-2 |pages=53–64 |edition=3 |jstor=j.ctv1k3nq1f.8 |chapter=The Beginning of Infant Baptism }}</ref> [[Athenagoras of Athens]] ''(On the Resurrection of the Dead, c. 177 AD)'': stated that infants who die are not judged, as they "have done neither evil nor good."<ref name=":622" /> [[Justin Martyr]] (''[[First Apology of Justin Martyr|First Apology]]'', 15, c. 155 AD; ''[[Second Apology of Justin Martyr|Second Apology]]'', 10, c. 153 AD) described infants and children as morally neutral, sinless until they can rationally choose to sin, emphasizing [[Free will#Christianity|free will]] and the "seed of the [[Logos (Christianity)|Logos]]." He praised the purity of "disciples from childhood," suggesting no innate sinfulness.{{sfn|Bakke|2005|pp=56–60}}

=== Third century ===
Clearer evidence of infant baptism emerges in the third century.{{sfn|Aland|2004|p=10}} Yet from the third to the early fifth century, many Christian parents postponed baptizing their children.<ref name="Messmer Infant Dedication in the Early Church" /> This delay was due to several factors: (1) the belief that waiting maximized baptism's spiritual benefits, (2) the custom of performing baptism only when death was near, (3) and the reluctance of unbaptized parents to have their children baptized.<ref name="Jensen Material and documentary evidence" />

Despite this, inscriptions such as from [[Rome]]’s [[Catacomb of Priscilla]] mentions an infant who had received baptism before passing away. Such inscriptions suggest that infant baptism was practiced regularly, especially in cases of illness or impending death ([[Emergency baptism]]).<ref name="Jensen Material and documentary evidence" /> Scholars like Jeremias and Ferguson examined inscriptional evidence related to infant baptism, Aland argued that third-century inscriptions offered no significant new information. By that period, infant baptism was already well attested in existing literary sources.<ref name=":22">{{cite journal |last1=Ferguson |first1=Everett |date=1979 |title=Inscriptions and the Origin of Infant Baptism |journal=The Journal of Theological Studies |volume=XXX |issue=1 |pages=37–46 |doi=10.1093/jts/XXX.1.37}}</ref>

These existing literary sources included: [[Hippolytus of Rome]] (''[[Apostolic Tradition]]'' 21.3-5) directed: ''“The little children shall be baptized first. If they can speak for themselves, let them do so; otherwise, their parents or a relative should answer on their behalf.”''<ref name=":32" /> [[Origen]] claimed that infant baptism was an apostolic tradition passed down to the Church, though it remains uncertain whether his view stemmed from theological reasoning or scriptural exegesis.<ref name=":32" /> Regardless, his writings attests that the custom was already firmly rooted.<ref name="Jensen Material and documentary evidence" /> [[Cyprian|Cyprian of Carthage]] further insisted that baptism should not be postponed, even for infants, asserting that God’s grace is ''"not given in greater or lesser measure based on the recipient’s age."''<ref name="Jensen Material and documentary evidence" />

=== Fourth century ===
The fourth century marked a turning point for Christianity as it transitioned from [[Persecution of Christians|persecution]] to a [[Christianity as the Roman state religion|favored religion]] within the [[Roman Empire]]. This shift brought about divergent baptismal practices. In some areas, the longstanding [[Catechesis|catechumenate]] persisted, with rigorous pre-baptismal instruction exemplified by figures like [[Cyril of Jerusalem]] and [[Gregory of Nyssa]]. Simultaneously, infant baptism gained prominence, fueled by evolving theological understandings of [[original sin]]'s implications.<ref name=":43">{{cite journal |last1=Lawson |first1=Kevin E. |date=May 2011 |title=Baptismal Theology and Practices and the Spiritual Nurture of Children Part I: Early and Medieval Church |journal=Christian Education Journal: Research on Educational Ministry |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=130–145 |doi=10.1177/073989131100800109}}</ref>

During this period, the Church strongly condemned [[Pelagianism]], which questioned the necessity of baptism for [[Salvation in Christianity|salvation]], and affirmed that baptism must be administered without delay. For example, official decrees such as the [[Council of Florence]]’s ''Pro Jacobitis'' warned against postponing baptism, thereby underlining that infants (and others) must receive baptism promptly to secure salvation. These developments, along with texts from the [[Councils of Carthage|Council of Carthage]] and the [[Roman Catechism]] that taught [[Salvation of infants#Early church|unbaptized infants could not attain heaven]], demonstrate that by the end of the fourth century infant baptism was a widely accepted and normative practice in the Church.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vorachek |first1=William R. |last2=Pearson |first2=William R. |last3=Rule |first3=Gordon S. |title=Cloning, Expression, and Characterization of a Class-Mu Glutathione Transferase from Human Muscle, the Product of the GST4 Locus |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |date=1991 |volume=88 |issue=10 |pages=4443–4447 |doi=10.1073/pnas.88.10.4443 |doi-access=free |jstor=2357061 |pmid=2034681 |pmc=51676 |bibcode=1991PNAS...88.4443V }}</ref>

Several prominent Christian leaders, such as Tertullian, [[Rufinus of Assisi|Rufinus]], [[Gregory of Nazianzus]], [[Basil of Caesarea]], [[Ambrose]], [[Jerome]], [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]], and [[Cyril of Alexandria]], attest to the widespread practice of [[Child dedication|infant ''dedication'']] or ''enrollment in the catechumenate'' rather than immediate baptism. This custom was observed across major Christian centers, from [[Carthage]] and [[Milan]] to [[Constantinople]] and [[Alexandria]]. Consequently, in the fourth century, dedicating infants and later instructing them in the catechumenate remained the normative practice, while infant baptism was generally administered only in cases of urgent necessity ([[emergency baptism]]).<ref name="Messmer Infant Dedication in the Early Church">{{cite journal |last1=Messmer |first1=Andrew |title=Infant Dedication in the Early Church: Texts, Commentary, and Present-Day Application |journal=Journal of European Baptist Studies |date=19 December 2022 |pages=61–89 Pages |doi=10.25782/jebs.v22i2.1064 }}</ref>
[[File:Baptism-Of-St.-Augustine,-1702.jpg|thumb|287x287px|[[Augustine of Hippo|St. Augustine of Hippo]] being baptized in 387 AD]]
According to Andrew Messmer (2022), many prominent Christian leaders, though born into Christian families, were not baptized as infants but received it later in life. For instance, [[Novatian]] (200–258) was only baptized during a grave illness, while [[Gregory of Nazianzus]] (c. 329–390) waited until around age thirty. [[Basil of Caesarea]] was baptized at approximately 27 (c. 357), and [[Gregory of Nyssa]] between ages 23 and 28. [[Ambrose|Ambrose of Milan]] (340–397) remained unbaptized until his sudden election as bishop in 374, and [[John Chrysostom]] (347–407) was baptized around age 20 (c. 368). [[Jerome]] (347–420) received baptism at 19 (366), and [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]] (354–430), despite his devout mother Monica’s influence, delayed his baptism until age 33 (387). This pattern reflects the widespread practice of delaying baptism, even among those raised in Christian households.<ref name="Messmer Infant Dedication in the Early Church" />

Regarding their views, the early Church Fathers held divergent views on infant baptism, reflecting the theological tensions of their era. [[Augustine of Hippo]], in his [[Pelagianism#Pelagianism and Augustinianism|anti-Pelagian writings]], maintained that baptism was essential for cleansing original sin, asserting that only through this [[sacrament]] could infants be incorporated into Christ's flock. He issued grave warnings about the eternal consequences of dying unbaptized.<ref name="Jensen Material and documentary evidence" /> In contrast, [[Gregory of Nazianzus]] adopted a more moderate position, arguing that since infants lack awareness of sin or grace, baptism should be deferred unless imminent danger threatened their lives - suggesting age three as an appropriate minimum or when children could actively participate in the rite.<ref name="Jensen Material and documentary evidence" /> [[Jerome]] took a decidedly proactive stance, particularly in his correspondence with [[Laeta]] (403 AD), where he framed infant baptism as a fundamental parental obligation, implying negligence in those who delayed the sacrament. These differing perspectives illustrate the evolving theology surrounding baptismal practices in early Christianity.<ref name="Jensen Material and documentary evidence" />

According to Robin M. Jensen (2012), archaeological evidence supports the existence of diverse baptismal practices in early Christianity. The variation in baptismal font designs suggests differences in liturgical customs, while third- and fourth-century funerary inscriptions confirm that some infants received emergency baptisms - though these do not demonstrate it was a widespread norm.<ref name="Jensen Material and documentary evidence" /> The interpretation of iconographic evidence remains contested, as depictions of small figures undergoing baptism could represent either the baptism of Jesus or early instances of infant baptism.<ref name="Jensen Material and documentary evidence" /> This ambiguity in material evidence mirrors the theological diversity seen in textual sources from the period.

=== Fifth century ===
[[File:Durand-ont01s.jpg|thumb|Medieval era [[Miniature (illuminated manuscript)|miniature]] of an infant being baptized in a [[Baptismal font]]]]
By the late fifth century, theological debates increasingly emphasized original sin as the primary justification for infant baptism. The growing influence of [[Augustinianism|Augustinian theology]] in [[Western Christianity]] found formal expression when the [[Councils of Carthage|Council of Carthage]] (418 AD) affirmed that infants, while personally guiltless, bore the taint of Adam's original sin and consequently needed baptism for spiritual purification. This doctrinal development marked a significant shift in [[Sacrament|sacramental theology]], transforming infant baptism from a discretionary practice to a theological necessity in Western Christian thought.<ref name=":43" />

By the early sixth century, a growing emphasis on the doctrine of [[Sacrament of Penance|repeatable penance]] further heightened fears that unbaptized infants would suffer eternal [[Damnation#Christianity|damnation]]. This period saw a shift in practice: parents began engaging in formal baptismal preparation activities on behalf of their children. Over time, these preparations gave way to a consolidated ceremony, where newborn infants were [[Baptism|baptised]], [[Anointing|anointed]] ([[confirmation]]), and received [[Communion under both kinds|communion]] all at once to ensure that even the youngest members of the community were promptly incorporated into the [[Salvation#Christianity|salvific rite]].<ref name=":43" /> Writings from such as [[John the Deacon (Venetian chronicler)|John the Deacon]]’s letter (c. 500 AD) highlight that the Church’s teaching and practice had firmly established infant baptism as essential for salvation in response to [[original sin]].<ref name=":43" /> Large fonts from this period indicate that adult baptism continued alongside infant baptism well into the sixth and seventh centuries.<ref name="Jensen Material and documentary evidence" /> In the sixth century, 526 AD, [[List of Byzantine emperors|eastern Roman emperor]], [[Justinian I]] made infant baptism compulsory.<ref name="Jensen Material and documentary evidence" />

=== Middle ages ===
The practice of infant baptism expanded significantly during the [[early Middle Ages]], particularly from the sixth century onward, largely due to concerns about high infant mortality rates. This led to the frequent administration of [[Emergency baptism|emergency baptisms]] (baptism in extremis), often performed in [[Medical respite care|respite]] [[Sanctuary#Sanctuary as a sacred place|sanctuaries]]. The sacrament became firmly established as a normative practice through the [[Carolingian Renaissance|Carolingian reforms of the ninth century]], and was further consolidated during the [[Gregorian Reform|Gregorian reforms of the eleventh and twelfth centuries]].<ref>{{cite journal |date=2001 |title=La protection spirituelle au Moyen Âge |journal=Cahiers de Recherches Médiévales |issue=8 |doi=10.4000/crm.376}}</ref>