Editing Individualist anarchism (section)

== Developments and expansion ==
=== Anarcha-feminism, free love, freethought and LGBT issues ===
{{main|Anarchism and issues related to love and sex|Anarcha-feminism|Queer anarchism}}
{{see also|Free love|Freethought}}

In Europe, interest in [[free love]] developed in French and Spanish individualist anarchist circles: "[[Anti-clericalism|Anticlericalism]], just as in the rest of the libertarian movement, is another of the frequent elements which will gain relevance related to the measure in which the (French) Republic begins to have conflicts with the church [...] Anti-clerical discourse, frequently called for by the french individualist [[André Lorulot]], will have its impacts in ''Estudios'' (a Spanish individualist anarchist publication). There will be an attack on institutionalized religion for the responsibility that it had in the past on negative developments, for its irrationality which makes it a counterpoint of philosophical and [[Progress|scientific progress]]. There will be a criticism of proselitism and ideological manipulation which happens on both believers and agnostics".{{sfn|Díez|2007|p=143}} This tendencies will continue in French individualist anarchism in the work and activism of [[Charles-Auguste Bontemps]] and others. In the Spanish individualist anarchist magazine ''Ética'' and ''[[Iniciales]]'', "there is a strong interest in publishing scientific news, usually linked to a certain [[atheist]] and [[anti-theist]] obsession, philosophy which will also work for pointing out the incompatibility between science and religion, faith and reason. In this way there will be a lot of talk on [[Darwinism|Darwin's theories]] or on the negation of the existence of the soul".{{sfn|Díez|2007|p=152}}

=== Anarcho-naturism ===
{{main|Anarcho-naturism}}

Individualist anarchist groups also were affiliated with [[naturism]]<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Boni |first1=Stefano |chapter=Naturism |title=The International Encyclopedia of Revolution and Protest |pages=1–2 |date=2010 |language=en |isbn=978-1-4051-9807-3 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd |doi=10.1002/9781405198073.wbierp1713 |quote=From the 1880s, anarcho-individualist publications and teachings promoted the social emancipatory function of naturism and denounced deforestation, mechanization, civilization, and urbanization as corrupting effects of the consolidating industrial-capitalist order.}}</ref> and individualist anarchist [[Henri Zisly]] promoted naturism in France.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Boni |first1=Stefano |chapter=Zisly, Henri (1872–1945) |title=The International Encyclopedia of Revolution and Protest |page=1 |date=2010 |language=en |isbn=978-1-4051-9807-3 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |doi=10.1002/9781405198073.wbierp1749 |df=mdy-all |quote=Henri Zisly, self-labeled individualist anarchist, is considered one of the forerunners and principal organizers of the naturist movement in France and one of its most able and outspoken defenders worldwide.}}</ref>

=== Individualist anarchism in the United States ===
{{main|Individualist anarchism in the United States}}

==== Mutualism and utopianism ====
[[File:Stephen Pearl Andrews.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Stephen Pearl Andrews]]]]
For American anarchist historian Eunice Minette Schuster, "[i]t is apparent [...] that [[Proudhon]]ian Anarchism was to be found in the United States at least as early as 1848 and that it was not conscious of its affinity to the Individualist Anarchism of [[Josiah Warren]] and [[Stephen Pearl Andrews]] [...] [[William B. Greene]] presented this Proudhonian Mutualism in its purest and most systematic form".<ref name="againstallauthority.org">[http://www.againstallauthority.org/NativeAmericanAnarchism.html ''Native American Anarchism: A Study of Left-Wing American Individualism'' by Eunice Minette Schuster] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160213201445/http://www.againstallauthority.org/NativeAmericanAnarchism.html|date=February 13, 2016}}</ref> [[William Batchelder Greene]] is best known for the works ''Mutual Banking'' (1850) which proposed an interest-free banking system and ''Transcendentalism'', a critique of the [[Transcendentalism|New England philosophical school]]. He saw mutualism as the synthesis of "liberty and order".<ref name="againstallauthority.org"/> His "associationism [...] is checked by individualism. [...] 'Mind your own business,' 'Judge not that ye be not judged.' Over matters which are purely personal, as for example, moral conduct, the individual is sovereign, as well as over that which he himself produces. For this reason he demands 'mutuality' in marriage—the equal right of a woman to her own personal freedom and property.<ref name="againstallauthority.org"/> Within some individualist anarchist circles, ''[[Mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism]]'' came to mean non-communist anarchism.<ref>Wilbur, Shawn P. (2018). "Mutualism". In Adams, Matthew S.; Levy, Carl. ''The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism''. Springer. p. 221. {{ISBN|9783319756202}}.</ref>

==== Boston anarchists ====

[[File:Lysander Spooner by Hardy.jpg|upright|thumb|[[Lysander Spooner]] by [[Amory Nelson Hardy]]]]
Another form of individualist anarchism was found in the United States as advocated by the so-called Boston anarchists.<ref name=levy/> By default, American individualists had no difficulty accepting the concepts that "one man employ another" or that "he direct him", in his labor but rather demanded that "all natural opportunities requisite to the production of wealth be accessible to all on equal terms and that [[Monopoly|monopolies]] arising from special privileges created by law be abolished".<ref>Madison, Charles A. "Anarchism in the United States." ''Journal of the History of Ideas'', Vol 6, No 1, January 1945, p. 53.</ref>

They believed [[state monopoly capitalism]] (defined as a state-sponsored monopoly)<ref name=schwartzman>Schwartzman, Jack. "Ingalls, Hanson, and Tucker: Nineteenth-Century American Anarchists." ''American Journal of Economics and Sociology'', Vol. 62, No. 5 (November 2003). p. 325.</ref> prevented labor from being fully rewarded.

[[Lysander Spooner]] besides his individualist anarchist activism was also an important [[Abolitionism|anti-slavery activist]] and became a member of the [[First International]].{{sfn|Woodcock|1962|p=459}}

Some Boston anarchists, including [[Benjamin Tucker]], identified themselves as [[socialist]]s, which in the 19th century was often used in the sense of a commitment to improving conditions of the [[working class]] (i.e. "[[the labor problem]]").<ref>Brooks, Frank H. 1994. ''The Individualist Anarchists: An Anthology of Liberty'' (1881–1908). Transaction Publishers. p. 75.</ref> The Boston anarchists such as Tucker and his followers continue to be considered socialists due to their opposition to [[usury]].<ref>[http://www.infoshop.org/page/AnarchistFAQSectionG1#secg14 "G.1.4 Why is the social context important in evaluating Individualist Anarchism?" in ''An Anarchist FAQ'']{{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130315000327/http://www.infoshop.org/page/AnarchistFAQSectionG1#secg14 |date=March 15, 2013 }}</ref> They do so because as the modern economist [[Jim Stanford]] points out there are many different kinds of competitive markets such as [[market socialism]] and capitalism is only one type of a market economy.<ref>Stanford, Jim. Economics for Everyone: A Short Guide to the Economics of Capitalism. Ann Arbor: MI., Pluto Press. 2008. p. 36.</ref> By around the start of the 20th century, the heyday of individualist anarchism had passed.<ref>[[Paul Avrich|Avrich, Paul]]. 2006. ''[[Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America]]''. [[AK Press]]. p. 6.</ref>

=== Individualist anarchism in Europe ===

European individualist anarchism proceeded from the roots laid by [[William Godwin]],<ref name=woodcock20/> [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] and [[Max Stirner]]. Proudhon was an early pioneer of [[anarchism]] as well as of the important individualist anarchist current of [[Mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism]].<ref name="Rines"/><ref name="Hamilton 1995 79"/> Stirner became a central figure of individualist anarchism through the publication of his seminal work ''[[The Ego and Its Own]]'' which is considered to be "a founding text in the tradition of individualist anarchism".<ref name=stirnersep/>

Important currents within European individualism include [[free love]] and [[naturism]].{{sfn|Díez|2006}}

==== France ====

From the legacy of Proudhon and Stirner there emerged a strong tradition of [[Individualist anarchism in France|French individualist anarchism]]. An early important individualist anarchist was [[Anselme Bellegarrigue]]. He participated in the [[French Revolution of 1848]], was author and editor of ''Anarchie, Journal de l'Ordre and Au fait ! Au fait ! Interprétation de l'idée démocratique'' and wrote the important early [[Anarchist Manifesto]] in 1850. Catalan historian of individualist anarchism Xavier Diez reports that during his travels in the United States "he at least contacted [[Henry David Thoreau|(Henry David) Thoreau]] and, probably [[Josiah Warren|(Josiah) Warren]]".{{sfn|Díez|2007|p=60}}

Later, this tradition continued with such intellectuals as [[Albert Libertad]], [[André Lorulot]], [[Émile Armand]], [[Victor Serge]], [[Zo d'Axa]] and [[Rirette Maîtrejean]], who in 1905 developed theory in the main individualist anarchist journal in France, ''[[L'Anarchie]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Woodcock|1962}}: "On the fringe of the movement, and particularly in the individualist faction which became relatively strong after 1900 and began to publish its own sectarian paper, – 315 – L'Anarchie ( 1905–14), there were groups and individuals who lived largely by crime. Among them were some of the most original as well as some of the most tragic figures in anarchist history."</ref>

In this sense, "the theoretical positions and the vital experiences of [F]rench individualism are deeply iconoclastic and scandalous, even within libertarian circles. The call of nudist [[naturism]], the strong defence of birth control methods, the idea of "[[Union of egoists|unions of egoists]]" with the sole justification of sexual practices, that will try to put in practice, not without difficulties, will establish a way of thought and action, and will result in sympathy within some, and a strong rejection within others".{{sfn|Díez|2006}}

[[File:Band a bonnot desenho.jpg|thumb|180px|Caricature of the [[Bonnot gang]]]]
[[Illegalists]] usually did not seek moral basis for their actions, recognizing only the reality of "might" rather than "right"; and for the most part, illegal acts were done simply to satisfy personal desires, not for some greater ideal.<ref name="Parry, Richard 1987. p. 15"/> Influenced by theorist Max Stirner's [[Egoist anarchism|egoism]] as well as Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (his view that "[[property is theft!]]"), [[Clément Duval]] and [[Marius Jacob]] proposed the theory of la ''reprise individuelle'' ([[individual reclamation]]) which justified [[robbery]] on the rich and personal [[direct action]] against exploiters and the system.<ref name="Parry, Richard 1987. p. 15"/>

==== Germany ====
{{see also|Der Einzige}}
In Germany, the Scottish-German [[John Henry Mackay]] became the most important propagandist for individualist anarchist ideas. He fused Stirnerist egoism with the positions of Benjamin Tucker and actually translated Tucker into German. Two semi-fictional writings of his own, ''[[Die Anarchisten]]'' and ''[[Der Freiheitsucher]]'', contributed to individualist theory through an updating of egoist themes within a consideration of the anarchist movement. English translations of these works arrived in the [[United Kingdom]] and in individualist American circles led by Tucker.<ref name="mckay">{{Cite journal |last1=Riley |first1=Thomas A. |title=New England Anarchism in Germany |journal=The New England Quarterly |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=25–38 |date=1945 |doi=10.2307/361389 |issn=0028-4866 |jstor=361389 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> Stirnerist individualism was popular among literary and intellectual anarchists  in pre-WWI Germany, for instance influencing the [[expressionist]] movement and the early thought of [[Otto Gross]].<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/487673|jstor=487673|title=Anarchism, Expressionism and Psychoanalysis|last=Mitzman|first=Arthur|journal=New German Critique|year=1977|issue=10|pages=77–104|doi=10.2307/487673}}</ref>

==== Italy ====
{{see also|Renzo Novatore|Pietro Bruzzi|Horst Fantazzini|Outlaw (1999 film)}}
In Italy, individualist anarchism had a strong tendency towards illegalism and violent propaganda by the deed similar to French individualist anarchism, but perhaps more extreme<ref>{{harvnb|Woodcock|1962}}: "At this point, encouraged by the disillusionment that followed the breakdown of the general strike, the terrorist individualists who had always – despite Malatesta's influence – survived as a small minority among Italian anarchists, intervened frightfully and tragically."</ref> and which emphazised criticism of organization be it anarchist or of other type.<ref>{{harvnb|Woodcock|1962}}: "in a dispute with the individualist anarchists of [[Paterson, New Jersey|Paterson]], who insisted that anarchism implied no organization at all, and that every man must act solely on his impulses. At last, in one noisy debate, the individual impulse of a certain Ciancabilla directed him to shoot Malatesta, who was badly wounded but obstinately refused to name his assailant."</ref>

==== Russia ====
{{see also|Alexei Borovoi}}
Individualist anarchism was one of the three categories of [[anarchism in Russia]], along with the more prominent [[anarcho-communism]] and [[anarcho-syndicalism]].<ref name=avruss>{{cite book | author-link=Paul Avrich |last = Avrich | first = Paul | title = The Russian Anarchists | publisher = [[AK Press]] | location = Stirling | year = 2006 | isbn = 1904859488 |page=56 |title-link = The Russian Anarchists }}</ref> The ranks of the Russian individualist anarchists were predominantly drawn from the [[intelligentsia]] and the [[working class]].<ref name=avruss/> For anarchist historian [[Paul Avrich]], "[t]he two leading exponents of individualist anarchism, both based in [[Moscow]], were [[Alexei Borovoi|Aleksei Alekseevich Borovoi]] and [[Lev Chernyi]] (born Pavel Dmitrievich Turchaninov). From [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]], they inherited the desire for a complete overturn of all values accepted by [[Bourgeoisie|bourgeois]] society political, moral, and cultural. Furthermore, strongly influenced by Max Stirner and Benjamin Tucker, the German and American theorists of individualist anarchism, they demanded the total liberation of the human personality from the fetters of organized society".<ref name=avruss/>

Some Russian individualists anarchists "found the ultimate expression of their [[social alienation]] in violence and crime, others attached themselves to [[avant-garde]] literary and artistic circles, but the majority remained "[[Philosophical anarchism|philosophical]]" anarchists who conducted animated parlor discussions and elaborated their individualist theories in ponderous journals and books".<ref name=avruss/>

Lev Chernyi advocated a [[Nietzschean]] [[Transvaluation of values|overthrow of the values]] of bourgeois Russian society, and rejected the voluntary [[Mir (social)|communes]] of anarcho-communist [[Peter Kropotkin]] as a threat to the freedom of the individual.{{sfn|Avrich|2006|p=180}}{{sfn|Avrich|2006|p=254}}<ref name=aa>{{cite book |last=Chernyi |first=Lev |title=Novoe Napravlenie v Anarkhizme: Asosiatsionnii Anarkhism |orig-year=1907 |edition=Moscow; 2nd |year=1923 |publisher=New York }}</ref> Scholars including Avrich and [[Allan Antliff]] have interpreted this vision of society to have been greatly influenced by the individualist anarchists Max Stirner and Benjamin Tucker.<ref name=sub>{{cite journal |last=Antliff |first=Allan |year=2007 |title=Anarchy, Power, and Poststructuralism |journal=SubStance |volume=36 |issue=113 |pages=56–66 |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/substance/v036/36.2antliff.pdf |access-date=2008-03-10 |doi=10.1353/sub.2007.0026 |s2cid=146156609 |archive-date=2016-04-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408210526/https://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/substance/v036/36.2antliff.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Spain ====
While Spain was influenced by American individualist anarchism, it was more closely related to the French currents. Around the start of the 20th century, individualism in Spain gathered force through the efforts of people such as Dorado Montero, [[Ricardo Mella]], [[Federico Urales]], [[Miguel Giménez Igualada]], Mariano Gallardo and J. Elizalde who translated French and American individualists.{{sfn|Díez|2006}} Important in this respect were also magazines such as ''La Idea Libre'', ''[[La Revista Blanca]]'', ''Etica'', ''[[Iniciales]]'', ''Al margen'', ''Estudios'' and ''Nosotros''. The most influential thinkers there were [[Max Stirner]], [[Émile Armand]] and [[Han Ryner]]. Just as in France, the spread of [[Esperanto]] and [[anationalism]] had importance just as [[naturism]] and [[free love]] currents.{{sfn|Díez|2006}} Later, Armand and Ryner themselves started writing in the Spanish individualist press. Armand's concept of amorous camaraderie had an important role in motivating [[polyamory]] as realization of the individual.{{sfn|Díez|2006}}

[[Catalonia|Catalan]] historian Xavier Diez reports that the Spanish individualist anarchist press was widely read by members of [[anarcho-communist]] groups and by members of the [[anarcho-syndicalist]] trade union [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo|CNT]]. There were also the cases of prominent individualist anarchists such as [[Federico Urales]] and [[Miguel Giménez Igualada]] who were members of the CNT and J. Elizalde who was a founding member and first secretary of the [[Federación Anarquista Ibérica|Iberian Anarchist Federation]] (IAF).{{sfn|Díez|2007}}

Between October 1937 and February 1938, Spanish individualist anarchist [[Miguel Giménez Igualada]] was editor of the individualist anarchist magazine ''Nosotros''{{sfn|Díez|2006}} in which many works of Armand and Ryner appeared. He also participated in the publishing of another individualist anarchist maganize ''Al Margen: Publicación quincenal individualista''.<ref name="spain2">{{harvnb|Díez|2006|p=47}}: "Entre los redactores y colaboradores de Al Margen, que trasladará su redacción a Elda, en Alicante, encontraremos a Miguel Giménez Igualada&nbsp;..."</ref> In his youth, he engaged in illegalist activities.{{sfn|Díez|2007}} His thought was deeply influenced by Max Stirner, of which he was the main popularizer in Spain through his own writings. He published and wrote the preface{{sfn|Díez|2006}} to the fourth edition in Spanish of ''[[The Ego and Its Own]]'' from 1900. He proposed the creation of a "[[Union of egoists]]" to be a federation of individualist anarchists in Spain, but it did not succeed.<ref name="spain3">{{harvnb|Díez|2006|p=48}}: "A partir de la década de los treinta, su pensamiento empieza a derivar hacia el individualismo, y como profundo estirneriano tratará de impulsar una federación de individualistas"</ref>

[[Federico Urales]] was an important individualist anarchist who edited ''[[La Revista Blanca]]''. The individualist anarchism of Urales was influenced by [[Auguste Comte]] and [[Charles Darwin]]. He saw science and reason as a defense against blind servitude to authority. He was critical of influential individualist thinkers such as Nietzsche and Stirner for promoting an [[Asociality|asocial]] egoist individualism and instead promoted an individualism with [[solidarity]] seen as a way to guarantee social equality and harmony. He was highly critical of [[anarcho-syndicalism]], which he viewed as plagued by excessive [[bureaucracy]]; and he thought that it tended towards [[reformism]]. Instead, he favored small groups based on ideological alignment. He supported and participated in the establishment of the IAF in 1927.{{sfn|Díez|2007}}

In 2000, Ateneo Libertario Ricardo Mella, Ateneo Libertario Al Margen, Ateneu Enciclopèdic Popular, Ateneo Libertario de Sant Boi and Ateneu Llibertari Poble Sec y Fundació D'Estudis Llibertaris i Anarcosindicalistes republished Émile Armand's writings on free love and individualist anarchism in a compilation titled ''Individualist anarchism and Amorous camaraderie''.<ref>[http://sindominio.net/etcetera/PUBLICACIONES/con_otros/Armand.doc "Individualismo anarquista y camaradería amorosa"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090719041733/http://www.sindominio.net/etcetera/PUBLICACIONES/con_otros/Armand.doc |date=2009-07-19 }} by [[Émile Armand]]</ref>

=== Individualist anarchism in Latin America ===
[[Argentina|Argentine]] anarchist historian [[Ángel Cappelletti]] reports that in Argentina "[a]mong the workers that came from Europe in the 2 first decades of the century, there was curiously some stirnerian individualists influenced by the philosophy of [[Nietzsche]], that saw syndicalism as a potential enemy of anarchist ideology. They established [...] [[affinity groups]] that in 1912 came to, according to [[Max Nettlau]], to the number of 20. In 1911 there appeared, in [[Colón, Buenos Aires|Colón]], the periodical ''El Único'', that defined itself as 'Publicación individualista'".<ref>{{Cite book | language = es | url = https://archive.org/details/pdfy-UPmBFnn3MElKSWNg | quote = anarquismo nietzsche. | title = El Anarquismo en América Latina | publisher = Fundacion Biblioteca Ayacuch | first1 = Carlos M | last1 = Rama | first2 = Ángel J | last2 = Cappellett | page = CLVII | isbn = 9789802761173 | year = 1990 }}</ref>