Editing Ideology (section)

==Political ideologies==
{{See also|List of political ideologies}}
In [[political science]], a political ideology is a certain ethical set of [[ideal (ethics)|ideals]], [[principle]]s, [[doctrine]]s, [[mythology|myths]], or [[symbol]]s of a [[social movement]], [[institution]], [[social class|class]], or large group that explains how [[society]] should work, offering some political and cultural blueprint for a certain [[social order]]. Political ideologies are concerned with many different aspects of a society, including but not limited to: the [[economy]], the [[government]], the [[environmentalism|environment]], [[education]], [[health care]], [[labor law]], [[criminal law]], the [[justice system]], [[social security]] and [[social welfare|welfare]], [[Public administration|public policy and administration]], [[foreign policy]], [[rights]], [[freedoms]] and [[duties]], [[citizenship]], [[immigration]], [[culture]] and [[national identity]], [[military]] administration, and [[religion]].

Political ideologies have two dimensions:
# Goals: how society should work; and
# Methods: the most appropriate ways to achieve the ideal arrangement.
A political ideology largely concerns itself with how to allocate [[power (sociology)|power]] and to what ends power should be used. Some parties follow a certain ideology very closely, while others may take broad inspiration from a group of related ideologies without specifically embracing any one of them. Each political ideology contains certain ideas on what it considers the best [[form of government]] (e.g., [[democracy]], [[demagogy]], [[theocracy]], [[caliphate]] etc.), scope of government (e.g. [[authoritarianism]], [[libertarianism]], [[federalism]], etc.) and the best [[economic system]] (e.g. [[capitalism]], [[socialism]], etc.). Sometimes the same word is used to identify both an ideology and one of its main ideas. For instance, ''socialism'' may refer to an economic system, or it may refer to an ideology that supports that economic system. Post 1991, many commentators claim that we are living in a post-ideological age,<ref>[[Daniel Bell|Bell, D.]] 2000. ''[[The End of Ideology|The End of Ideology: On the Exhaustion of Political Ideas in the Fifties]]'' (2nd ed.)''.'' Cambridge, MA: [[Harvard University Press]]. p. 393.</ref> in which redemptive, all-encompassing ideologies have failed. This view is often associated with [[Francis Fukuyama]]'s writings on the ''[[end of history]]''.<ref>[[Francis Fukuyama|Fukuyama, Francis]]. 1992. ''[[The End of History and the Last Man]]''. New York: [[Free Press (publisher)|Free Press]]. p. xi.</ref> Contrastly, Nienhueser (2011) sees research (in the field of [[human resource management]]) as ongoingly "generating ideology".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nienhueser |first1=Werner |date=October 2011 |title=Empirical Research on Human Resource Management as a Production of Ideology |journal=Management Revue |publisher=[[Nomos Publishing House|Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft mbH & Co. KG]] |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=367–393 |doi=10.5771/0935-9915-2011-4-367 |issn=0935-9915 |quote=[...] current empirical research in HRM is generating ideology. |doi-access=free |jstor=41783697 |s2cid=17746690}}</ref>

There are many proposed methods for the classification of political ideologies. Ideologies can identify themselves by their position on the [[political spectrum]] (e.g. [[left-wing politics|left]], [[center (politics)|center]], or [[right-wing politics|right]]). They may also be distinguished by [[Single-issue politics|single issues]] around which they may be built (e.g. [[civil libertarianism]], [[Pro-Europeanism|support]] or [[Euroscepticism|opposition to European integration]], [[Marijuana political parties|legalization of marijuana]]). They may also be distinguished by [[political strategy|political strategies]] (e.g. [[populism]], [[Personalist dictator|personalism]]). The classification of political ideology is difficult, however, due to [[Cultural relativism|cultural relativity]] in definitions. For example, "what Americans now call [[Conservatism in the United States|conservatism]] much of the world calls [[liberalism]] or [[neoliberalism]]"; a [[conservatism in Finland]] would be labeled [[socialism in the United States]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ribuffo |first=Leo P. |author-link=Leo P. Ribuffo |date=January 2011 |title=Twenty Suggestions for Studying the Right Now that Studying the Right Is Trendy |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/409734 |journal=[[Historically Speaking (journal)|Historically Speaking]] |language=en |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=2–6 |doi=10.1353/hsp.2011.0013 |issn=1944-6438 |s2cid=144367661}}</ref>

Philosopher [[Michael Oakeshott]] defines single-issue ideologies as "the formalized abridgment of the supposed sub-stratum of the rational truth contained in the tradition". Moreover, Charles Blattberg offers an account that distinguishes political ''ideologies'' from [[Political philosophy|political ''philosophies'']].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Blattberg |first=Charles |date=2009 |title=Political Philosophies and Political Ideologies |url=https://philpapers.org/archive/BLAPPA-2.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210601042926/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1755117 |archive-date=2021-06-01 |journal=[[Public Affairs Quarterly]] |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=193–217 |ssrn=1755117 |s2cid=142824378 |doi=10.1515/9780773576636-002|isbn=978-0-7735-7663-6 }}</ref>

Slavoj Žižek argues how the very notion of post-ideology can enable the deepest, blindest form of ideology. A sort of false consciousness or false cynicism, engaged in for the purpose of lending one's point of view the respect of being objective, pretending neutral cynicism, without truly being so. Rather than help avoiding ideology, this lapse only deepens the commitment to an existing one. Zizek calls this "a [[Postmodernism|post-modernist]] trap".<ref>{{cite book|last=Žižek|first=Slavoj|author-link=Slavoj Žižek|title=The Sublime Object of Ideology|date=2008|publisher=[[Verso Books|Verso]]|isbn=978-1-84467-300-1|edition=2nd|location=London|pages=xxxi, 25–27}}</ref> [[Peter Sloterdijk]] advanced the same idea already in 1988.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sloterdijk |first=Peter |date=1988 |title=Critique of Cynical Reason |url=https://archive.org/details/critiqueofcynica00slot |url-access=registration |publisher=[[University of Minnesota Press]] |isbn=978-0-8166-1586-5}}</ref>

Studies have shown that political ideology is somewhat genetically [[Heritability|heritable]].<ref>[[Thomas J. Bouchard Jr.|Bouchard, Thomas J.]], and [[Matt McGue]]. 2003. "[https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/neu.10160 Genetic and environmental influences on human psychological differences (ePDF)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200723113707/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/neu.10160 |date=2020-07-23 }}." ''[[Journal of Neurobiology]]'' 54(1):44–45. {{doi|10.1002/neu.10160}}. {{PMID|12486697}}</ref><ref>Cloninger, et al. (1993).</ref><ref>Eaves, L. J., and [[Hans Eysenck|H. J. Eysenck]]. 1974. "[http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v249/n5454/abs/249288a0.html Genetics and the development of social attitudes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170327080316/http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v249/n5454/abs/249288a0.html |date=2017-03-27 }}." ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' 249:288–89. {{doi|10.1038/249288a0}}.</ref><ref>[[John Alford (professor)|Alford, John]], Carolyn Funk, and [[John Hibbing|John R. Hibbing]]. 2005. "[http://www.uky.edu/AS/PoliSci/Peffley/pdf/Alford,%20et%20al%202005%20APSR%20Genetics.pdf Are Political Orientations Genetically Transmitted?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809045236/http://www.uky.edu/AS/PoliSci/Peffley/pdf/Alford,%20et%20al%202005%20APSR%20Genetics.pdf |date=2017-08-09 }}." ''[[American Political Science Review]]'' 99(2):153–167.</ref><ref>[[Pete Hatemi|Hatemi, Peter K.]], [[Sarah Medland|Sarah E. Medland]], Katherine I. Morley, [[Andrew C. Heath]], and Nicholas G. Martin. 2007. "[https://genepi.qimr.edu.au/contents/p/staff/Hatemi501Published.pdf The genetics of voting: An Australian twin study] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080720165619/http://www.genepi.qimr.edu.au/contents/p/staff/Hatemi501Published.pdf |date=2008-07-20 }}." ''[[Behavior Genetics (journal)|Behavior Genetics]]'' 37(3):435–448. {{doi|10.1007/s10519-006-9138-8}}.</ref><ref>[[Pete Hatemi|Hatemi, Peter K.]], J. Hibbing, J. Alford, N. Martin, and L. Eaves. 2009. "[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258180337_Is_There_a_Party_in_Your_Genes Is there a 'party' in your genes?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210601042914/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258180337_Is_There_a_Party_in_Your_Genes |date=2021-06-01 }}" ''[[Political Research Quarterly]]'' 62 (3):584–600. {{doi|10.1177/1065912908327606}}. {{SSRN|1276482}}.</ref><ref>Settle, Jaime E., [[Christopher Dawes (author)|Christopher T. Dawes]], and [[James H. Fowler]]. 2009. "[http://jhfowler.ucsd.edu/heritability_of_partisan_attachment.pdf The heritability of partisan attachment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616133630/http://jhfowler.ucsd.edu/heritability_of_partisan_attachment.pdf |date=2010-06-16 }}." ''[[Political Research Quarterly]]'' 62(3):601–13. {{doi|10.1177/1065912908327607}}.</ref>

===Ideology and state===
{{main|Ideocracy}}
When a political ideology becomes a dominantly pervasive component within a government, one can speak of an ''ideocracy''.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xC6FAAAAMAAJ|title=Jaroslaw Piekalkiewicz, Alfred Wayne Penn. Politics of Ideocracy|isbn=978-0-7914-2297-7|last1=Piekalkiewicz|first1=Jaroslaw|last2=Penn|first2=Alfred Wayne|year=1995|publisher=State University of New York Press |access-date=2020-08-27|archive-date=2021-04-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413211428/https://books.google.com/books?id=xC6FAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> Different forms of government use ideology in various ways, not always restricted to politics and society. Certain ideas and schools of thought become favored, or rejected, over others, depending on their compatibility with or use for the reigning social order.

In ''[[The Anatomy of Revolution]]'', [[Crane Brinton]] said that new ideology spreads when there is discontent with an old regime.<ref>[[Crane Brinton|Brinton, Crane]]. 1938. "Chapter 2." ''[[The Anatomy of Revolution]]''.</ref> The may be repeated during revolutions itself; extremists such as [[Vladimir Lenin]] and [[Robespierre]] may thus overcome more moderate revolutionaries.<ref>[[Crane Brinton|Brinton, Crane]]. 1938. "Chapter 6." ''[[The Anatomy of Revolution]]''.</ref> This stage is soon followed by [[Thermidor]], a reining back of [[revolutionary]] enthusiasm under [[Pragmatism|pragmatists]] like Napoleon and [[Joseph Stalin]], who bring "[[Return to normalcy|normalcy]] and equilibrium".<ref>[[Crane Brinton|Brinton, Crane]]. 1938. "Chapter 8." ''[[The Anatomy of Revolution]]''.</ref> Brinton's sequence ("men of ideas>[[Fanaticism|fanatics]]>practical men of action") is reiterated by [[J. William Fulbright]],<ref>[[J. William Fulbright|Fulbright, J. William]]. 1967. ''The Arrogance of Power''. ch. 3–7.</ref> while a similar form occurs in [[Eric Hoffer]]'s ''[[The True Believer]]''.<ref>[[Eric Hoffer|Hoffer, Eric]]. 1951. ''[[The True Believer]]''. ch. 15–17.</ref>