Editing History of Wales (section)

== Early Middle Ages: 383–1066 ==
<!-- Section length 1879 words 18/12/24. Could do with trimming and use of sub sections -->
{{Main|Wales in the Early Middle Ages}}
{{See also|Wales in the Middle Ages|List of Anglo-Welsh wars}}

The 400-year period following the collapse of Roman rule is the most difficult to interpret in the history of Wales.<ref name="Davies915"/> When the Roman garrison of Britain was withdrawn in 410, the various British states were left self-governing. Evidence for a continuing Roman influence after the departure of the [[Roman legion]]s is provided by an inscribed stone from [[Gwynedd]] dated between the late 5th and mid-6th centuries commemorating a certain [[Cantiorix Inscription|Cantiorix]] who was described as a citizen (''cives'') of Gwynedd and a cousin of Maglos the [[magistrate]] (''magistratus'').{{sfn|Lynch|1995|p=126}} There was considerable Irish colonisation in [[Dyfed]], where there are many stones with [[ogham]] inscriptions.{{sfn|Davies|1994|p=52}} Wales had become Christian under the Romans, and the [[Age of the Saints]] (approximately 500–700) was marked by the establishment of monastic settlements throughout the country, by religious leaders such as [[Saint David]], [[Illtud]] and [[Saint Teilo]].{{sfn|Lloyd|1911a|pp=143–159}}

[[File:Cadfan.JPG|thumb|250px|left|Gravestone of King [[Cadfan ap Iago]] of Gwynedd (died c. 625) in [[Llangadwaladr]] church]]
[[File:Britain in AD500 - Project Gutenberg eText 16790.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|Britain in [[Anno Domini|AD]] 500: The areas shaded pink on the map were inhabited by the [[Celtic Britons|Britons]], here labelled ''Welsh''. The pale blue areas in the east were controlled by [[Germanic peoples|Germanic tribes]], while the pale green areas to the north were inhabited by the [[Gaels]] and [[Picts]].]]

One of the reasons for the Roman withdrawal was the pressure put upon the empire's military resources by the incursion of barbarian tribes from the east. These tribes, including the [[Angles (tribe)|Angles]] and [[Saxons]], gradually took control of eastern and southern Britain.{{sfn|Charles-Edwards| 2013|p=345}}<!--Source needs checking, unsure of past text-source integrity--> After the [[End of Roman rule in Britain|Roman departure]] in AD 410, much of the lowlands of Britain to the east and south-east was overrun by various [[Germanic peoples]], commonly known as Anglo-Saxons. Some have theorized that the cultural dominance of the Anglo-Saxons was due to apartheid-like social conditions in which the Britons were at a disadvantage.{{sfn|Ravilious|2006}}

By AD 500 the land that would become Wales had divided into a number of kingdoms free from Anglo-Saxon rule.<ref name="Davies915"/> The kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Gwynedd|Gwynedd]], [[Kingdom of Powys|Powys]], [[Kingdom of Dyfed|Dyfed]], [[Kingdom of Ceredigion|Caredigion]], [[Glywysing|Morgannwg]], the [[Ystrad Tywi]], and [[Kingdom of Gwent|Gwent]] emerged as independent Welsh [[Succession of states|successor states]].<ref name="Davies915"/> The largest of these being [[Kingdom of Gwynedd|Gwynedd]] in northwest Wales and [[Kingdom of Powys|Powys]] in the east. Gwynedd was the most powerful of these kingdoms in the 6th and 7th centuries, under rulers such as [[Maelgwn Gwynedd]] (died 547){{sfn|Lloyd|1911a|p=131}} and [[Cadwallon ap Cadfan]] (died 634/5){{sfn|Maund|2006|p=36}} who in alliance with [[Penda of Mercia]] was able to lead his armies as far as the [[Kingdom of Northumbria]] and control it for a period. Following Cadwallon's death in battle the following year, his successor [[Cadafael Cadomedd ap Cynfeddw]] also allied himself with Penda against Northumbria but thereafter Gwynedd, like the other Welsh kingdoms, was mainly engaged in defensive warfare against the growing power of [[Mercia]].

Archaeological evidence, in the Low Countries and what was to become England, shows early Anglo-Saxon migration to Great Britain reversed between 500 and 550, which concurs with Frankish chronicles.<ref name="Davies56">{{harvnb|Davies|1994|p=56}}</ref> John Davies notes this as consistent with a victory for the [[Celtic Britons]] at [[Battle of Badon|Badon Hill]] against the Saxons, which was attributed to [[King Arthur|Arthur]] by [[Nennius]].<ref name="Davies56"/>

At the [[Battle of Chester]] in 616, the forces of [[Powys]] and other British kingdoms were defeated by the [[Northumbria]]ns under [[Æthelfrith]], with king [[Selyf ap Cynan]] among the dead.{{sfn|Charles-Edwards| 2013|p=345}}  It has been suggested that this battle finally severed the land connection between Wales and the kingdoms of the [[Hen Ogledd]] ("Old North"), the [[Brittonic languages|Brittonic-speaking]] regions of what is now southern [[Scotland]] and [[northern England]], including [[Rheged]], [[Kingdom of Strathclyde|Strathclyde]], [[Elmet]] and [[Gododdin]], where [[Old Welsh]] was also spoken.{{Citation needed|date=March 2023}} From the 8th century on, Wales was by far the largest of the three remnant [[Celtic Britons|Brittonic]] areas in Britain, the other two being the Hen Ogledd and [[Cornwall]].

Having lost much of what is now the [[West Midlands (region)|West Midlands]] to [[Mercia]] in the 6th and early 7th centuries, a resurgent late-7th-century Powys checked Mercian advances. [[Æthelbald of Mercia]], looking to defend recently acquired lands, had built [[Wat's Dyke]]. According to Davies, this had been with the agreement of king [[Elisedd ap Gwylog]] of Powys, as this boundary, extending north from the valley of the [[River Severn]] to the Dee estuary, gave him [[Oswestry]].<ref name="Hist Wales 65-66">{{harvnb|Davies|1994|pp=65–66}}</ref> Another theory, after carbon dating placed the dyke's existence 300 years earlier, is that it was built by the post-Roman rulers of [[Wroxeter]].<ref>{{harvnb|Davies|2008|p=926}}</ref> King [[Offa of Mercia]] seems to have continued this initiative when he created a larger earthwork, now known as [[Offa's Dyke]] ({{lang|cy|Clawdd Offa}}). Davies wrote of [[Cyril Fox]]'s study of Offa's Dyke: "In the planning of it, there was a degree of consultation with the kings of Powys and Gwent. On the Long Mountain near [[Trelystan]], the dyke veers to the east, leaving the fertile slopes in the hands of the Welsh; near [[Ruabon|Rhiwabon]], it was designed to ensure that Cadell ap Brochwel retained possession of the Fortress of Penygadden." And, for Gwent, Offa had the dyke built "on the eastern crest of the gorge, clearly with the intention of recognizing<!--'recognizing' is the spelling used in John Davies' original text, and should be preserved uncorrected {{sic}}, per [[WP:MOSQUOTE]]. --> that the [[River Wye]] and its traffic belonged to the kingdom of Gwent."<ref name="Hist Wales 65-66"/> However, Fox's interpretations of both the length and purpose of the Dyke have been questioned by more recent research.{{sfn|Hill|Worthington|2003}}

The southern and eastern parts of Great Britain lost to English settlement became known in Welsh as {{lang|wlm|[[Lloegyr]]}} (Modern Welsh {{lang|cy|Lloegr}}), which may have referred to the kingdom of Mercia originally and which came to refer to England as a whole.{{Efn|The earliest instance of {{lang|wlm|Lloegyr}} occurs in the early 10th-century prophetic poem {{lang|cy|[[Armes Prydein]]}}. It seems comparatively late as a place name, the nominative plural {{lang|cy|[[Lloegyr|Lloegrwys]]}}, "men of {{lang|cy|Lloegr}}", being earlier and more common. The English were sometimes referred to as an entity in early poetry ({{lang|cy|Saeson}}, as today) but just as often as {{lang|cy|Eingl}} (Angles), {{lang|cy|Iwys}} (Wessex-men), etc. {{lang|cy|Lloegr}} and {{lang|cy|Sacson}} became the norm later when England emerged as a kingdom. As for its origins, some scholars have suggested that it originally referred only to [[Mercia]] – at that time a powerful kingdom and for centuries the main foe of the Welsh. It was then applied to the new kingdom of England as a whole (see for instance [[Rachel Bromwich]] (ed.), {{lang|cy|[[Welsh Triads|Trioedd Ynys Prydein]]}}, University of Wales Press, 1987). "The lost land" and other fanciful meanings, such as [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]]'s monarch Locrinus, have no etymological basis. (See also Discussion in Reference 40)}} The Germanic tribes who now dominated these lands were invariably called {{lang|cy|Saeson}}, meaning "[[Saxons]]". The Anglo-Saxons called the Romano-British {{lang|gem-x-proto|[[*Walhaz|Walha]]}}, meaning 'Romanised foreigner' or 'stranger'.<ref name="Wales Hist 2">{{harvnb|Davies|1994| p=2}}</ref> The Welsh continued to call themselves {{lang|cy|Brythoniaid}} (Brythons or Britons) well into the [[Middle Ages]], though the first written evidence of the use of {{lang|cy|Cymru}} and {{lang|cy|y Cymry}} is found in a praise poem to {{lang|cy|[[Cadwallon ap Cadfan]]|italic=no}} ({{lang|cy|Moliant Cadwallon}}, by {{lang|cy|Afan Ferddig|italic=no}}) {{circa|633}}.<ref name="Wales Hist 71">{{harvnb|Davies|1994|p=71}}</ref> In {{lang|cy|[[Armes Prydein]]}}, believed to be written around 930–942, the words {{lang|cy|Cymry}} and {{lang|cy|Cymro}} are used as often as 15 times.{{sfn|Davies|2008|p=714}} However, from the Anglo-Saxon settlement onwards, the people gradually begin to adopt the name {{lang|cy|Cymry}} over {{lang|cy|Brythoniad}}.<ref name="Davies186">{{harvnb|Davies|2008|p=186}}</ref>

From 800 onwards, a series of dynastic marriages led to {{lang|cy|[[Rhodri Mawr]]|italic=no}}'s ({{abbr|r.|ruled}} 844–77) inheritance of {{lang|cy|[[Gwynedd]]|italic=no}} and {{lang|cy|[[Powys]]|italic=no}}. His sons founded the three dynasties of {{lang|cy|[[Aberffraw]]|italic=no}} for {{lang|cy|Gwynedd|italic=no}}, {{lang|cy|[[House of Dinefwr|Dinefwr]]|italic=no}} for {{lang|cy|[[Deheubarth]]|italic=no}} and {{lang|cy|[[Mathrafal]]|italic=no}} for {{lang|cy|Powys|italic=no}}. {{lang|cy|Rhodri|italic=no}}'s grandson {{lang|cy|[[Hywel Dda]]|italic=no}} (r. 900–50) founded {{lang|cy|Deheubarth|italic=no}} out of his maternal and paternal inheritances of {{lang|cy|[[Dyfed]]|italic=no}} and {{lang|cy|[[Seisyllwg]]|italic=no}} in 930, ousted the {{lang|cy|[[Aberffraw]]|italic=no}} dynasty from {{lang|cy|Gwynedd|italic=no}} and {{lang|cy|Powys|italic=no}} and then codified [[Cyfraith Hywel|Welsh law]] in the 940s.{{sfn|Davies |2008| p=388}}

===Rise and fall Gwynedd: 401–1283===
{{see also|Kingdom of Gwynedd|History of Gwynedd during the High Middle Ages}}
[[File:Medieval Wales.JPG|right|thumb|upright=1.2|Medieval kingdoms of Wales shown within the boundaries of the present day country of Wales and not inclusive of all]]

[[File:Offa's Dyke Map 2.png|thumb|Offa's Dyke (Clawdd Offa) Map.]]

Eventually, after the 5th century, Wales was unified and ruled again by the [[Celtic Britons|Brythonic]] Celtic tribes who inhabited the lands. The Kingdom of Gwynedd was established in [[North West Wales]] during the year 401 by [[Cunedda Wledig]], a [[Roman army|Roman soldier]] who hailed from [[Manaw Gododdin]] ([[Scotland]]) to pacify the invading fellow [[Celts]] from [[Ireland]].{{sfn|Lloyd|1911a}}

The rulers of Gwynedd would establish a Kingdom as descendants of the final [[List of legendary Kings of Britain|Kings of Britain]]. During the age of [[Cadwaladr]] (last King of Britain, Prince of Gwynedd {{circa|660s}}), his family settled the lands of Southwest [[Anglesey]] as patrons of [[St Cadwaladr's Church, Llangadwaladr]], an inscription in [[Latin]] is still found in the Church today speaks of his grandfather ([[Cadfan ap Iago]]), "the Wisest and Most Renowned of All Kings".{{sfn|Lloyd|1911a}}{{sfn|Giles|1848|loc=chpt 1,2|pp=277-288}}{{sfn|Lloyd|1959}}

By the 700s, [[Kingdom of Powys|Powys]] as the easternmost of the major kingdoms of Wales came under the most pressure from the English in [[Cheshire]], [[Shropshire]] and [[Herefordshire]]. This kingdom originally extended east into areas now in England, and its ancient capital, [[Pengwern]], has been variously identified as modern [[Shrewsbury]] or a site north of [[Baschurch]].{{sfn|Davies|1994|p=64}} These areas were lost to the kingdom of [[Mercia]]. The construction of the earthwork known as [[Offa's Dyke]] (usually attributed to [[Offa of Mercia]] in the 8th century) may have marked an agreed border.{{sfn|Davies|1994|pp=65–66}}

For a single man to rule the whole country during this period was rare. This is often ascribed to the inheritance system practised in Wales. All sons received an equal share of their father's property (including illegitimate sons), resulting in the division of territories. However, the [[Welsh law]]s prescribe this system of division for land in general, not for kingdoms, where there is provision for an ''edling'' (or heir) to the kingdom to be chosen, usually by the king. Any son, legitimate or illegitimate, could be chosen as edling and there were frequently disappointed candidates prepared to challenge the chosen heir.{{efn|For a discussion of this, see{{sfn|Stephenson|1984|pp=138–141}}}}

The King [[Rhodri Mawr]] later established a new dynasty ({{circa |870s AD}}) by constructing a [[royal palace]] at [[Aberffraw]], it was named after the village it was located at, the ''[[House of Aberffraw]]'' on Anglesey, then in the Kingdom of [[Gwynedd]].{{sfn|Pierce|1959c}}{{sfn|Llwyd|1832|p=62,63}} Rhodri was able to extend his rule to [[Powys]] and [[Ceredigion]].{{sfn|Maund|2006|pp=50–54}} On his death his realms were divided between his sons. Rhodri's grandson, [[Hywel Dda]] (Hywel the Good), formed the kingdom of [[Deheubarth]] by joining smaller kingdoms in the southwest and had extended his rule to most of Wales by 942.{{sfn|Lloyd|1911a|p=337}} He is traditionally associated with the codification of [[Welsh law]] at a council which he called at [[Whitland]], the laws from then on usually being called the "Laws of Hywel". Hywel followed a policy of peace with the English. On his death in 949 his sons were able to keep control of [[Deheubarth]] but lost [[Gwynedd]] to the traditional dynasty of this kingdom.{{sfn|Lloyd|1911a|pp=343–344}}

Wales was now coming under increasing attack by [[Vikings]], particularly Danish raids in the period between 950 and 1000. According to the chronicle ''[[Brut y Tywysogion]]'', [[Gofraid mac Arailt|Godfrey Haroldson]] carried off two thousand captives from [[Anglesey]] in 987, and the king of Gwynedd, [[Maredudd ab Owain]] is reported to have redeemed many of his subjects from slavery by paying the Danes a large ransom.{{sfn|Lloyd|1911a|pp=351–352}}

In 853, the [[Vikings]] raided [[Anglesey]], but in 856, [[Rhodri Mawr]] defeated and killed their leader, Gorm.{{sfn|Davies|2008|p=911}} The [[Celtic Britons]] of Wales made peace with the Vikings and [[Anarawd ap Rhodri]] allied with the Norsemen occupying [[Northumbria]] to conquer the north.{{sfn|Charles-Edwards|2001|p=104}} This alliance later broke down and Anarawd came to an agreement with [[Alfred the Great|Alfred]], king of [[Wessex]], with whom he fought against the west Welsh. According to {{Lang|la|[[Annales Cambriae]]}}, in 894, "Anarawd came with the Angles and laid waste to [[Ceredigion]] and [[Ystrad Tywi]]."{{sfn|Hill|2001|p=176}}

[[Gruffydd ap Llywelyn]] was the only ruler to be able to unite the Welsh kingdoms under his rule. Originally king of Gwynedd, by 1055 he was ruler of almost all of Wales and had annexed parts of England around the border. However, he was defeated by [[Harold Godwinson]] in 1063 and killed by his own men. His territories were again divided into the traditional kingdoms.{{sfn|Maund|2006|pp=87–97}}{{sfn|Maund|1991|p=64}} [[Llywelyn II]] (the last) became the first official Prince of Wales and inherited the lands gained by his father, [[Llywelyn the Great]]. He was appointed Prince by the English Crown in 1267. In 1282, he was ambushed and killed without a male heir. The execution of his brother [[Dafydd ap Gruffydd]] in 1283 on the orders of King [[Edward I of England]] effectively ended [[Welsh independence]]. The title of Prince of Wales was then used by the English monarchy as the heir to the English throne.{{sfn|Turvey|2010|p=11, 99-105}}

[[Gruffydd ap Llywelyn]] was the only ruler to unite all of Wales under his rule, described by one chronicler after his death as [[king of Wales]]. In 1055 Gruffydd ap Llywelyn killed his rival [[Gruffydd ap Rhydderch]] in battle and recaptured {{Lang|cy|[[Deheubarth]]|italic=no}}.{{sfn|Jones|1959}} Originally king of Gwynedd, by 1057 he was ruler of Wales and had annexed parts of England around the border. He ruled Wales with no internal battles.{{sfn|Maund|1991|pp=216-}}{{sfn|Maund|2006|pp=87-97}} His territories were again divided into the traditional kingdoms.{{sfn|Maund|2006|pp=87-97}} [[John Davies (historian)|John Davies]] states that {{lang|cy|Gruffydd|italic=no}} was "the only Welsh king ever to rule over the entire territory of Wales... Thus, from about 1057 until his death in 1063, the whole of Wales recognised the kingship of {{lang|cy|Gruffydd ap Llywelyn|italic=no}}. For about seven brief years, Wales was one, under one ruler, a feat with neither precedent nor successor."<ref name="Wales Hist 100">{{harvnb|Davies|1994|p=100}}</ref> [[Owain Gwynedd]] (1100–1170) of the Aberffraw line was the first Welsh ruler to use the title {{lang|la|princeps Wallensium}} (prince of the Welsh), a title of substance given his victory on the [[Berwyn range]], according to Davies.<ref name="Wales Hist 128">{{harvnb|Davies|1994|p=128}}</ref> During this time, between 1053 and 1063, Wales lacked any internal strife and was at peace.{{sfn|Maund|1991|p=216}}