Editing History of Trinidad and Tobago (section)

== British administration<!--'British Trinidad and Tobago' redirects here--> ==
{{See also|British West Indies|British Windward Islands}}

===Tobago===
The [[Treaty of Paris (1763)|Treaty of Paris]] in 1763 ended Tobago's status as a neutral territory and brought it under British control.<ref name="Niddrie">{{Cite journal |last=Niddrie |first=D. L. |date=1966 |title=Eighteenth-Century Settlement in the British Caribbean |journal=Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers |issue=40 |pages=67–80 |doi=10.2307/621569 |issn=0020-2754 |jstor=621569}}</ref> A [[plantation economy]] was quickly established on the island. Under the direction of the [[Board of Trade]],<ref name="Niddrie" /> the island was surveyed and sold to planters.<ref name="Boomert4">{{Cite book |last=Boomert |first=Arie |title=The indigenous peoples of Trinidad and Tobago : from the first settlers until today |date=2016-01-15 |isbn=9789088903540 |location=Leiden |oclc=944910446}}</ref>{{Rp|125–128}} In 1781, as part of the [[Anglo-French War (1778–1783)|Anglo-French War]], France [[Invasion of Tobago|captured Tobago]]. The island was ceded to France in 1783 under the terms of the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]].<ref name="Laurence2">{{Cite book |last=Laurence |first=K. O. |title=Tobago in wartime, 1793–1815 |date=1995 |publisher=University of the West Indies Press |isbn=9766400032 |location=Barbados |oclc=32699769}}</ref>{{Rp|1–9}}

The British recapture the island during the [[War of the First Coalition]]. British forces from Barbados under the command of [[Cornelius Cuyler]] captured the island 1781.<ref name="Laurence">{{Cite book |last=Laurence |first=K. O. |title=Tobago in wartime, 1793–1815 |date=1995 |publisher=University of the West Indies Press |isbn=9766400032 |location=Barbados |oclc=32699769}}</ref>{{Rp|7–8}} Tobago was returned to France in 1802 under the [[Treaty of Amiens]], but recaptured by the British when war broke out again in 1803.<ref name="Laurence3">{{Cite book |last=Laurence |first=K. O. |title=Tobago in wartime, 1793–1815 |date=1995 |publisher=University of the West Indies Press |isbn=9766400032 |location=Barbados |oclc=32699769}}</ref>{{Rp|1–9}} France formally surrendered Tobago to Britain under the terms of the 1814 [[Treaty of Paris (1814)|Treaty of Paris]].<ref name="Luke2">{{Cite book |last=Luke |first=Learie B. |title=Identity and secession in the Caribbean: Tobago versus Trinidad, 1889–1980 |date=2007 |publisher=University of the West Indies Press |isbn=978-9766401993 |location=Kingston, Jamaica |oclc=646844096}}</ref>{{rp|6}}

==== Slavery ====
The Tobagonian economy in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century was completely dependent on slavery, both for plantation and domestic labour.<ref name="Laurence4">{{Cite book |last=Laurence |first=K. O. |title=Tobago in wartime, 1793–1815 |date=1995 |publisher=University of the West Indies Press |isbn=9766400032 |location=Barbados |oclc=32699769}}</ref>{{Rp|94–132}} Sugar production dominated the island's economy, and more than 90% of the enslaved population was employed on the sugar estates.<ref name="Laurence4" />{{Rp|131}} The enslaved population grew from 14,170 in 1790 to 16,190 and reached 18,153 in 1807, the year the [[Slave Trade Act 1807|slave trade was abolished]], and declined to 16,080 by 1813.<ref name="Laurence4" />{{Rp|30–33}} Slavery was regulated by the Slave Act (formally ''An Act for the Good Order and Government of Slaves'') of 1775. Slaves were considered property, with no intrinsic rights.<ref name="Laurence4" />{{Rp|94–100}}

==== Emancipation and metayage ====
Declining sugar prices led to a downturn in the economy of the West Indian islands, including Tobago. After [[Emancipation of the British West Indies|Emancipation]] in 1838, economic conditions did not improve.<ref name="Luke3">{{Cite book |last=Luke |first=Learie B. |title=Identity and secession in the Caribbean: Tobago versus Trinidad, 1889–1980 |date=2007 |publisher=University of the West Indies Press |isbn=978-9766401993 |location=Kingston, Jamaica |oclc=646844096}}</ref>{{Rp|1–9}} The 1846 [[Sugar Duties Act 1846|Sugar Duties Act]] removed protections for British West Indian sugar, forcing it to compete with foreign-grown sugar, which was cheaper to produce, and [[Sugar beet|beet sugar]], which was subsidised.<ref name="Luke3" /> 

Given a lack of money to pay labourers, planters in Tobago resorted to [[metayage]], a form of [[sharecropping]]. In this system, planters provided the land, planting stocks, transport and machinery to manufacture sugar while the workers (metayers) provided the labour to cultivate and harvest the canes and operate the sugar mill.<ref name="Marshall">{{Cite journal |last=Marshall |first=W. K. |date=1965 |title=Metayage in the sugar industry of the British Windward Islands, 1838–1865 |journal=Jamaican Historical Review |volume=5 |pages=28–55}}</ref> 

First introduced in Tobago in 1843, it became the general form of production by 1845 and remained the dominant mode of production in Tobago until the end of the nineteenth century, when sugar production was finally abandoned.<ref name="Marshall" />

===Trinidad===
[[File:Trinidad Ralph Abercromby.JPG|thumb|A medallion commemorating the capture of Trinidad and Tobago by the [[British Empire|British]] in 1797.|alt=]]
[[File:Protector of Slaves Office (Trinidad) by Richard Bridgens.jpg|thumb|''Protector of Slaves Office (Trinidad)'', Richard Bridgens, c. 1833.]]
In 1797, a British force led by [[Ralph Abercromby|General Sir Ralph Abercromby]] launched the [[Invasion of Trinidad (1797)|invasion of Trinidad]]. His squadron sailed through the Bocas and anchored off the coast of [[Chaguaramas, Trinidad|Chaguaramas]]. The Spanish [[José María Chacón|Governor Chacón]] decided to capitulate without fighting. Trinidad thus became a British [[crown colony]], with a French-speaking population and Spanish laws.<ref name="Eric" />{{rp|49}} British rule was formalized under the [[Treaty of Amiens]] (1802).

In 1808, Port-of-Spain was destroyed by fire. At that time, it was a sprawling town of wood and shingle that had grown tremendously during the previous twenty-five years. As a result of this disastrous the Government brought in legislation regarding building regulations, and for this reason, the new government buildings, all of which had been destroyed by the fire, were built of brick.

British rule led to an influx of settlers from the United Kingdom and the British colonies of the Eastern Caribbean. English, Scots, Irish, German and Italian families arrived. Under British rule, new estates were created and the import of slaves did increase, but this was the period of [[abolitionism]] in England and the slave trade was under attack.<ref name=Brereton>[[Bridget Brereton|Brereton, Bridget]] (1981). ''A History of Modern Trinidad 1783–1962''. London: Heinemann Educational Books {{ISBN|0-435-98116-1}}</ref><ref name="Williams, Eric 1962">Williams, Eric (1962). ''History of the People of Trinidad and Tobago''. London: Andre Deutsch.</ref> Slavery was [[Slavery Abolition Act 1833|abolished in 1833]], after which former slaves served an "[[Slavery Abolition Act 1833#The Act|apprenticeship]]" period which ended on 1 August 1838 with full emancipation. An overview of the populations statistics in 1838, however, clearly reveals the contrast between Trinidad and its neighbouring islands: upon emancipation of the slaves in 1838, Trinidad had only 17,439 slaves, with 80% of slave owners having fewer than 10 slaves each.<ref name="Williams, Eric 1962" />{{rp|84–85}} In contrast, at twice the size of Trinidad, Jamaica had roughly 360,000 slaves.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Meighoo, Kirk |year=2008|title=Ethnic Mobilisation vs. Ethnic Politics: Understanding Ethnicity in Trinidad and Tobago Politics|journal=Commonwealth & Comparative Politics|volume=46|issue=1|pages= 101–127|doi=10.1080/14662040701838068|s2cid=153587532}}</ref>

==== End of slavery ====
{{Slavery}}
In August 1816, seven hundred former slaves from the Americas arrived, having served for fourteen months in the (second British) [[Corps of Colonial Marines]] at the [[Royal Naval Dockyard, Bermuda]]. After rejecting British government orders for transfer to the [[West India Regiment]]s, and on the [[British Admiralty|Admiralty]] refusing to continue responsibility for them, they finally accepted, but only with reluctance, a government offer of settlement in Trinidad. These ex-[[Corps of Colonial Marines|Colonial Marines]] (aka "Merikens") were organised by the authorities in villages according to their military companies (so-called "company towns").<ref>{{cite news|newspaper=Trinidad and Tobago Express Newspaper|url=http://www.trinidadexpress.com/commentaries/The-Merikens-again-210343861.html|title=The Merikens again|author=Bridget Brereton|date=5 June 2013|access-date=20 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141220044722/http://www.trinidadexpress.com/commentaries/The-Merikens-again-210343861.html|archive-date=20 December 2014|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=McNish Weiss|first1=John|title=The Merikens: Free Black American settlers in Trinidad 1815–16|date=2002|publisher=McNish & Weiss|location=London|isbn=0-9526460-5-6|edition=2nd}}</ref>

An attempt was made to delay the full [[Abolitionism in the United Kingdom|abolition of slavery]] in 1833. The first announcement from [[Whitehall]] in England that slaves would be totally freed by 1840 was made in 1833. In the meantime, slaves on plantations were expected to remain where they were and work as "apprentices" for the next six years.

Trinidad and Tobago demonstrated a successful use of [[non-violent]] protest and [[passive resistance]]. On 1 August 1834, an unarmed group of mainly elderly ex-slaves being addressed by the governor at Government House about the new laws, began chanting: "Pas de six ans. Point de six ans" ("Not six years. No six years"), drowning out the voice of the governor.

Peaceful protests continued until a resolution to abolish apprenticeship was passed and ''de facto'' freedom was achieved. This may have been partially due to the influence of Dr. Jean Baptiste Phillipe's book ''A Free Mulatto'' (1824).<ref>Carmichael (1961), p. 196, n.</ref> At the request of Governor Sir George Fitzgerald Hill, on 25 July, "Dr. Jean Baptiste Phillipe the first coloured member of the Council, proposed a resolution to end apprenticeship and this was passed. [...] Full emancipation for all was finally legally granted ahead of schedule on 1 August 1838."<ref>Dryden, John. 1992, "Pas de Six Ans!" In: ''Seven Slaves & Slavery: Trinidad and Tobago 1777–1838'', by Anthony de Verteuil, Port of Spain, pp. 371–379.</ref>

=== Trinidad and Tobago ===
In 1887, the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|British Parliament]] passed the Trinidad and Tobago Act, which authorised the union of Trinidad and Tobago.<ref name="Luke4">{{Cite book |last=Luke |first=Learie B. |title=Identity and secession in the Caribbean: Tobago versus Trinidad, 1889–1980 |date=2007 |publisher=University of the West Indies Press |isbn=978-9766401993 |location=Kingston, Jamaica |oclc=646844096}}</ref>{{Rp|64–67}} The goal of the union was to pass the cost of administering Tobago from the British crown to the more prosperous colony of Trinidad.<ref name="Brereton 1981">{{Cite book |last=Brereton |first=Bridget |author-link=Bridget Brereton |title=A history of modern Trinidad, 1783–1962 |publisher=Heinemann |year=1981 |isbn=0435981161 |location=Kingston, Jamaica |oclc=8669166}}</ref>{{Rp|153-156}} On 17 November 1888, the Act was proclaimed, and the union took effect on 1 January 1889. The islands were united under a single administrative structure, which was based in [[Port of Spain]], and a [[List of Governors of Trinidad and Tobago|single governor]], who had formerly been the governor of Trinidad. The Supreme Court in Trinidad gained authority over Tobago and had the power to appoint magistrates.<ref name="Luke4" />{{Rp|64–67}} Tobago's status was downgraded to that of a ward in 1899, with the warden of Tobago as the chief government official on the island.<ref name="Luke4" />{{Rp|101–107}}

==== Agricultural development and indentured labour ====
[[File:Temple in the Sea historical marker.jpg|thumb|[[Temple in the Sea]] historical marker.]]
The [[sugarcane]] [[Sugar plantations in the Caribbean|plantations]] which dominated the economy of Trinidad and Tobago in the 19th century gradually gave ground to the cultivation of [[Theobroma cacao|cacao]]. Trinidad and Tobago [[chocolate]] became a high-priced, much sought-after commodity. The [[Colonialism|Colonial]] government opened land to settlers interested in establishing cacao estates. French Creoles (white Trinidadian elites descended from the original French settlers) were being marginalised economically by large English business concerns who were buying up sugar plantations, and this gave them a fresh avenue of economic development.

Venezuelan farmers with experience in cacao cultivation were also encouraged to settle in Trinidad and Tobago, where they provided much of the early labour in these estates. Many of the former cocoa-producing areas of Trinidad retain a distinctly Spanish flavour and many of the descendants of the [[Cocoa panyols]] (from 'espagnol') remain in these areas including Trinidad.<ref>{{Cite book |last=French |first=Patrick |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cI8_MIqGY18C |title=The World Is What It Is |date=2008-11-04 |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-307-27035-1 |pages=33 |language=en}}</ref>

In 1844, the British Government allowed the immigration of 2,500 Indian workers as [[indentured servants]], from Calcutta and Madras. According to Williams, this was an effort to provide "an adequate and dependable supply of labour." One third of the cost of passage, including return, was to borne as a public expense.  Additional funds were provided for the Office of Protector of Immigrants, medical and police services. Wages were set at $2.40 per month for males, and $1.45 per month for females. In 1899, the working day was fixed at 9 hours.  They could buy a plot of land in exchange for return passage.  Between 1838 and 1917, 145,000 Indians immigrated to Trinidad.<ref name="Eric" />{{rp|98–103,120–121}} There were also workers brought from China at about the same time:
<blockquote>In Trinidad there were, about twenty years ago [i.e. ca.-1886], 4,000 or 5,000 Chinese, but they have decreased to probably about 2,000 or 3,000, [2,200 in 1900]. They used to work in sugar plantations, but are now principally shopkeepers, as well as general merchants, miners and railway builders, etc.<ref>''Things Chinese or Notes connected with China''. J. Dyer Ball. 1906, p. 144.</ref></blockquote>Many Indian immigrants who had completed their [[Indentured servitude|indentureship]] also established cocoa estates, most notable of them being [[Haji Gokool Meah]], a [[Kashmir]]i-born immigrant who went on to become one of the wealthiest men in Trinidad and Tobago. The Indian community has steadily prospered and grown until now it makes up about 35% of the population of the nation (the largest ethnic group by about 1%).

The arrival of ''[[Witch's broom|witches' broom]]'' and ''[[Black pod disease|black pod]]'' diseases in the 1930s, coupled with the [[Great Depression]], destroyed the cacao industry in Trinidad and Tobago. Although prices for Trinidad and Tobago [[Cocoa bean|cocoa]] beans remains high on the world markets, cocoa is no more than a marginal crop.
Relations between the Indian immigrants, and both the British, and the black population were generally strained,<ref>Moore, P. J. (1999), "Colonial Images of Blacks and Indians in Nineteenth-Century Guyana", in Brereton, B., and Kevin A. Yelvington, KA (eds), ''The Colonial Caribbean in Transition: Essays on Post-emancipation Social and Cultural Life'', University Press of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, p. 154.</ref> and occasionally erupted into violence such as the 1884 [[Hosay massacre]].

==== Discovery of oil ====
The American Merrimac Oil Company drilled an early oil well at [[La Brea, Trinidad and Tobago|La Brea]] at Trinidad and Tobago in 1857, where oil was struck at {{convert|280|ft|m}}. Also mentioned is the pioneering work of Capt. Darwent with his Paria Petroleum Company Limited, and Conrad F. Stollmeyer (who was great-grandfather of Republic Bank's then chairman, former West Indies cricket captain, Jeffrey Stollmeyer), an entrepreneur of that period who felt that a combustible fuel could not be distilled out of the asphalt from the pitch lake. The other point of view from Capt. Darwent was that a combustible fuel, refined from oil drilled from the earth would be the ideal fuel for the future."<ref>[http://www.spett.org/SPE%20Newsletter%20-%20November%202002.htm SPETT.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060819161038/http://www.spett.org/SPE%20Newsletter%20-%20November%202002.htm |date=19 August 2006 }} ''Makin' Hole''. ''Newsletter of The Society of Petroleum Engineers'' (Trinidad and Tobago Section). Issue 28, November 2002.</ref>

In either 1865, 1866, or 1867, according to different accounts, the American civil engineer, Walter Darwent, discovered and produced oil at [[La Brea, Trinidad and Tobago|Aripero]]. Efforts in 1867 to begin production by the Trinidad and Tobago Petroleum Company at La Brea and the Pariah Petroleum Company at Aripero were poorly financed and abandoned after Walter Darwent died of [[yellow fever]].

In 1893 Mr Randolph Rust, along with his neighbour, Mr Lee Lum, drilled a successful well near Darwent's original one. By early 1907 major drilling operations began, roads and other infrastructure were built. Annual production of oil in Trinidad and Tobago reached {{convert|47000|oilbbl}} by 1910 and kept rapidly increasing year by year.<ref>''The New Trinidad & Tobago'' – from the original by Jos. A. De Suze (1846–1941), Collins, 1965. Reprint 1972.</ref><ref>''Trinidad and Tobago's Oil: An Illustrated Survey of the Oil Industry in Trinidad and Tobago''. The Petroleum Association of Trinidad and Tobago. 1952.</ref>

Estimated oil production in Trinidad and Tobago in 2005 was about {{convert|150000|oilbbl/d|abbr=on}}.<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/trinidad-and-tobago/ CIA.Gov], ''CIA World Factbook''</ref>