Editing History of Scotland (section)

==17th century==
{{Main|Union of the Crowns}}
In 1603, [[James VI of Scotland|James VI King of Scots]] inherited the throne of the [[Kingdom of England]] and became King James I of England, leaving [[Edinburgh]] for London and uniting England with Scotland under one monarch.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ross |first=David R. |title=Chronology of Scottish History |date=2002 |publisher=Geddes & Grosset |isbn=978-1-855-34380-1 |page=56 |ol=8993243M |quote=1603: James VI becomes James I of England in the Union of the Crowns, and leaves Edinburgh for London |author-link=David R. Ross}}</ref> The Union was a [[Personal union|personal]] or [[dynastic union]], with the [[The Crown|Crowns]] remaining both distinct and separate—despite James's best efforts to create a new "imperial" throne of "Great Britain".<ref>D. L. Smith, ''A History of the Modern British Isles, 1603–1707: The Double Crown'' (1998), ch. 2.</ref> The acquisition of the Irish crown along with the English facilitated a process of settlement by Scots in what was historically the most troublesome area of the kingdom in [[Ulster]], with perhaps 50,000 Scots settling in the province by the mid-17th century.<ref>{{Harvp|Mitchison|2002|p=175}}.</ref> James adopted a different approach to impose his authority in the western Highlands and Islands. The additional military resource that was now available, particularly the English navy, resulted in the enactment of the [[Statutes of Iona]] which compelled integration of Hebridean clan leaders with the rest of Scottish society.<ref name="Devine 2018">{{Cite book |last=Devine |first=Tom M. |title=The Scottish Clearances: A History of the Dispossessed, 1600–1900 |date=2018 |publisher=Allen Lane |isbn=978-0-241-30410-5 |location=London |ol=28224201M |author-link=Tom Devine}}</ref>{{Rp|pages=37–40}} Attempts to found a Scottish colony in North America in [[Nova Scotia]] were largely unsuccessful without sufficient funds or willing colonists.<ref>{{Harvp|Mitchison|2002|p=176}}.</ref>

===Wars of the Three Kingdoms and the Puritan Commonwealth===
{{Further|Wars of the Three Kingdoms}}

====Bishops' Wars====
{{Main|Bishops' Wars}}
[[File:Riot against Anglican prayer book 1637.jpg|thumb|right|The [[St Giles Cathedral|St. Giles]] riot initiated by [[Jenny Geddes]] sparked off the Bishops' Wars.]]
Although James had tried to get the Scottish Church to accept some of the High Church Anglicanism of his southern kingdom, he met with limited success. His son and successor, [[Charles I of England|Charles I]], took matters further, introducing an English-style Prayer Book into the Scottish church in 1637. This resulted in anger and widespread rioting. (The story goes that it was initiated by a certain [[Jenny Geddes]] who threw a stool in [[St Giles Cathedral]].)<ref>{{Harvp|Mackie|1978|p=203}}.</ref> Representatives of various sections of Scottish society drew up the [[National Covenant]] in 1638, objecting to the King's liturgical innovations. In November of the same year matters were taken even further, when at a meeting of the General Assembly in Glasgow the Scottish bishops were formally expelled from the Church, which was then established on a full Presbyterian basis.<ref name="Mackieetal1991p205-6">{{Harvp|Mackie|1978|pp=205–206}}.</ref> Charles gathered a military force; but as neither side wished to push the matter to a full military conflict, a temporary settlement was concluded at [[Berwick-upon-Tweed#English town|Pacification of Berwick]].<ref name="Mackieetal1991p205-6" /> Matters remained unresolved until 1640 when, in a renewal of hostilities, Charles's northern forces were defeated by the Scots at the [[Battle of Newburn]] to the west of Newcastle.<ref>{{Harvp|Mackie|1978|pp=208–209}}.</ref> During the course of these Bishops' Wars Charles tried to raise an army of Irish Catholics, but was forced to back down after a storm of protest in Scotland and England. The backlash from this venture provoked a [[Irish Rebellion of 1641|rebellion in Ireland]] and Charles was forced to appeal to the English Parliament for funds. Parliament's demands for reform in England eventually resulted in the [[English Civil War]]. This series of civil wars that engulfed England, Ireland and Scotland in the 1640s and 1650s is known to modern historians as the [[Wars of the Three Kingdoms]].<ref>{{Harvp|Mackie|1978|p=209–210}}.</ref> The [[Covenanters]] meanwhile, were left governing Scotland, where they raised a large army of their own and tried to impose their religious settlement on [[Scottish Episcopal Church|Episcopalians]] and [[Roman Catholics]] in the north of the country. In England his religious policies caused similar resentment and he ruled without recourse to parliament from 1629.<ref>M. B. Young, ''Charles I'' (Palgrave Macmillan, 1997), p. 73.</ref>

====Civil war====
{{Main|Scotland in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms}}
{{See also|English Civil War}}
[[File:1st Marquess of Montrose.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|left|[[James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose]], who led a successful pro-royalist campaign in the Highlands in 1644–1646]]
As the civil wars developed, the English [[roundhead|Parliamentarians]] appealed to the Scots Covenanters for military aid against the King. A [[Solemn League and Covenant]] was entered into, guaranteeing the Scottish Church settlement and promising further reform in England.<ref>{{Harvp|Mackie|1978|pp=211–212}}.</ref> Scottish troops played a major part in the defeat of Charles I, notably at the [[battle of Marston Moor]]. An army under the Earl of Leven occupied the North of England for some time.<ref>{{Harvp|Mackie|1978|pp=213–214}}.</ref>

However, not all Scots supported the Covenanter's taking arms against their King. In 1644, [[James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose]] attempted to raise the Highlands for the King. Few Scots would follow him, but, aided by 1,000 Irish, Highland and Islesmen troops sent by the [[Irish Confederates]] under [[Alasdair Mac Colla|Alasdair MacDonald (MacColla)]], and an instinctive genius for mobile warfare, he was stunningly successful. A [[Scotland in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms|Scottish Civil War]] began in September 1644 with his victory at [[battle of Tippermuir]]. After a series of victories over poorly trained Covenanter militias, the lowlands were at his mercy. However, at this high point, his army was reduced in size, as MacColla and the Highlanders preferred to continue the war in the north against the Campbells. Shortly after, what was left of his force was defeated at the [[Battle of Philiphaugh]]. Escaping to the north, Montrose attempted to continue the struggle with fresh troops; but in July 1646 his army was disbanded after the King surrendered to the Scots army at Newark, and the civil war came to an end.<ref>{{Harvp|Mackie|1978|pp=217–218}}.</ref>

The following year Charles, while he was being held captive in Carisbrooke Castle, entered into an agreement with moderate Scots Presbyterians. In this secret "[[Engagers|Engagement]]", the Scots promised military aid in return for the King's agreement to implement Presbyterianism in England on a three-year trial basis. The [[James Hamilton, 1st Duke of Hamilton|Duke of Hamilton]] led an invasion of England to free the King, but he was defeated by [[Oliver Cromwell]] in August 1648 at the Battle of Preston.<ref>{{Harvp|Mitchison|2002|pp=225–226}}.</ref>

====Cromwellian occupation and Restoration====
{{Main|Scotland under the Commonwealth|Restoration (Scotland)}}
<!-- This section is linked from [[William M'Culloch]]. See [[WP:MOS#Section management]] -->
[[File:Cromwell at Dunbar Andrew Carrick Gow.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Cromwell at Dunbar]]'' by [[Andrew Carrick Gow]]. The battle of Dunbar was a crushing defeat for the Scottish Covenanters]]
The [[execution of Charles I]] in 1649 was carried out in the face of objections by the Covenanter government and his son was immediately proclaimed as King [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] in Edinburgh. Oliver Cromwell [[Anglo-Scottish war (1650–1652)|led an invasion of Scotland in 1650]], and defeated the Scottish army at [[battle of Dunbar (1650)|Dunbar]]. One year later, a Scottish invasion of England was again defeated by Cromwell at [[battle of Worcester|Worcester]]. Cromwell emerged as the leading figure in the English government and Scotland was occupied by an English force under [[George Monck]]. The country was incorporated into the Puritan-governed [[Commonwealth of England|Commonwealth]] and lost its independent church government, parliament and legal system, but gained access to English markets.<ref>{{Harvp|Mackie|1978|pp=221–224}}.</ref> Various attempts were made to legitimise the union, calling representatives from the Scottish burghs and shires to negotiations and to various English parliaments, where they were always under-represented and had little opportunity for dissent. However, final ratification was delayed by Cromwell's problems with his various parliaments and the union did not become the subject of an act until 1657 (see [[Tender of Union]]).<ref>{{Harvp|Mackie|1978|pp=225–226}}.</ref>

Following the death of Cromwell and the regime's collapse, Charles II was restored in 1660 and Scotland again became an independent kingdom.<ref name="Mackieetal1991pp241-5">{{Harvp|Mackie|1978|pp=241–245}}.</ref> Scotland regained its system of law, parliament and kirk, but also the [[Lords of the Articles]] (by which the crown managed parliament), bishops and a king who did not visit the country. He ruled largely without reference to Parliament, through a series of commissioners. These began with [[John Middleton, 1st Earl of Middleton|John, Earl of Middleton]] and ended with the king's brother and heir, [[James, Duke of York]] (known in Scotland as the Duke of Albany).<ref>{{Harvp|Mackie|1978|p=239}}.</ref> The [[English Navigation Acts]] prevented the Scots engaging in what would have been lucrative trading with England's colonies.<ref>{{Harvp|Ferguson|1977|page=153}}.</ref> The restoration of episcopacy was a source of trouble, particularly in the south-west of the country, an area with strong Presbyterian sympathies. Abandoning the official church, many of the inhabitants began to attend illegal field assemblies, known as [[conventicle]]s.<ref>{{Harvp|Mackie|1978|p=253}}.</ref> Official attempts to suppress these led to a rising in 1679, defeated by [[James, Duke of Monmouth]], the King's illegitimate son, at the [[Battle of Bothwell Bridge]].<ref>{{Harvp|Mackie|1978|p=238}}.</ref> In the early 1680s a more intense phase of persecution began, later to be called "[[the Killing Time]]". When Charles died in 1685 and his brother, a Roman Catholic, succeeded him as [[James II of England|James VII of Scotland (and II of England)]], matters came to a head.<ref>{{Harvp|Mackie|1978|p=241}}.</ref>

===The deposition of James VII===
{{Main|Glorious Revolution in Scotland}}
[[File:James II 1633-1701.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|[[James II of England|James VII of Scotland (and II of England)]], who vacated the throne in 1688]]
James put Catholics in key positions in the government and attendance at conventicles was made punishable by death. He disregarded parliament, purged the council and forced through [[religious toleration]] to Roman Catholics, alienating his Protestant subjects. It was believed that the king would be succeeded by his daughter Mary, a Protestant and the wife of [[William III of England|William of Orange]], Stadtholder of the Netherlands, but when in 1688, James produced a male heir, [[James Francis Edward Stuart]], it was clear that his policies would outlive him. An invitation by seven leading Englishmen led William to land in England with 40,000 men, and James fled, leading to the almost bloodless "[[Glorious Revolution]]". The Estates issued a ''[[Claim of Right]]'' that suggested that James had forfeited the crown by his actions (in contrast to England, which relied on the legal fiction of an abdication) and offered it to William and Mary, which William accepted, along with limitations on royal power.<ref name="Mackieetal1991pp241-5" /> The final settlement restored Presbyterianism and abolished the bishops who had generally supported James. However, William, who was more tolerant than the Kirk tended to be, passed acts restoring the Episcopalian clergy excluded after the Revolution.<ref>{{Harvp|Mackie|1978|pp=252–253}}.</ref>

Although William's supporters dominated the government, there remained a significant following for James, particularly in the Highlands. His cause, which became known as [[Jacobitism]]{{snd}}from {{lang|la|Jacobus}}, the Latin rendering of ''James''{{snd}}led to a series of risings. An initial Jacobite military attempt was led by [[John Graham, Viscount Dundee]]. His forces, almost all Highlanders, defeated William's forces at the [[Battle of Killiecrankie]] in 1689, but they took heavy losses and Dundee was slain in the fighting. Without his leadership the Jacobite army was soon defeated at the [[Battle of Dunkeld]].<ref>{{Harvp|Mackie|1978|pp=283–284}}.</ref> In the aftermath of the Jacobite defeat on 13 February 1692, in an incident since known as the [[Massacre of Glencoe]], 38 members of the [[Clan MacDonald of Glencoe]] were killed by members of the Earl of Argyll's Regiment of Foot, on the grounds that they had not been prompt in pledging allegiance to the new monarchs.<ref>{{Harvp|Mackie|1978|pp=287–288}}.</ref>{{Clear}}

===Economic crisis of the 1690s===
{{Main|Seven ill years|Darien scheme}}
[[File:New Caledonia in Darien.jpg|thumb|right|upright|The colony of New Caledonia on the Isthmus of Darien]]
The closing decade of the 17th century saw the generally favourable economic conditions that had dominated since the Restoration come to an end. There was a slump in trade with the Baltic and France from 1689 to 1691, caused by French protectionism and changes in the Scottish cattle trade, followed by four years of failed harvests (1695, 1696 and 1698–1699), an era known as the "seven ill years".<ref>{{Harvp|Mitchison|2002|pp=291–292, 301-302}}.</ref> The result was severe famine and depopulation, particularly in the north.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cullen |first=Karen J. |title=Famine in Scotland: The "Ill Years" of the 1690s |date=2010 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-0-748-64184-0 |ol=37117493M}}</ref> The Parliament of Scotland of 1695 enacted proposals to help the desperate economic situation, including setting up the [[Bank of Scotland]]. The [[Company of Scotland|"Company of Scotland Trading to Africa and the Indies"]] received a charter to raise capital through public subscription.<ref>{{Harvp|Mitchison|2002|p=314}}.</ref>

With the dream of building a lucrative overseas colony for Scotland, the Company of Scotland invested in the [[Darien scheme]], an ambitious plan devised by [[William Paterson (banker)|William Paterson]] to establish a colony on the [[Isthmus of Panama]] in the hope of establishing trade with the Far East.<ref name="Richards2004p79">{{Cite book |last=Richards |first=Eric |title=Britannia's Children: Emigration from England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland since 1600 |date=2004 |publisher=Continuum |isbn=1-852-85441-3 |page=79 |ol=3328899M}}</ref> The Darién scheme won widespread support in Scotland as the landed gentry and the merchant class were in agreement in seeing overseas trade and colonialism as routes to upgrade Scotland's economy. 

Since the capital resources of the Edinburgh merchants and landholder elite were insufficient, the company appealed to middling social ranks, who responded with patriotic fervour to the call for money; the lower classes volunteered as colonists.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hidalgo |first=Dennis R. |date=Summer 2001 |title=To Get Rich for Our Homeland: The Company of Scotland and the Colonization of the Darién |journal=Colonial Latin American Historical Review |volume=10 |issue=3 |page=156}}</ref> But the English government opposed the idea: involved in the [[War of the Grand Alliance]] from 1689 to 1697 against France, it did not want to offend Spain, which claimed the territory as part of [[New Kingdom of Granada|New Granada]]. The English investors withdrew. Returning to Edinburgh, the Company raised 400,000 pounds in a few weeks. Three small fleets with a total of 3,000 men eventually set out for Panama in 1698. The exercise proved a disaster. Poorly equipped; beset by incessant rain; under attack by the Spanish from nearby [[Cartagena, Colombia|Cartagena]]; and refused aid by the English in the [[West Indies]], the colonists abandoned their project in 1700. Only 1,000 survived and only one ship managed to return to Scotland.<ref name=Richards2004p79/>