Editing History of Peru (section)

==Republican era==<!--Please note that "Republican history of Peru" redirects here before modifying this section-->
The '''republican era''' of Peru is usually considered to begin after the declaration of independence or the [[Battle of Ayacucho]] in 1824, and its periods are modelled after [[Jorge Basadre]]'s work, ''[[Historia de la República del Perú]]''.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Perú, Hombre e Historia |last=Pease G.Y. |first=Franklin |publisher=[[BBVA|Fundación BBVA]] |year=1993 |edition=1st |location=Lima |language=es |url=https://fundacionbbva.pe/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/libro_000057.pdf |volume=III, La República}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Jorge Basadre: El Historiador de la República |last=Valera Huarcaya |first=Juan Carlos |publisher=[[University of Lima]] |year=2017 |location=Lima |language=es |url=https://revistas.ulima.edu.pe/index.php/Athina/article/download/1168/1122/}}</ref>
===Beginnings of the Republic (1824–1836)===
{{main|History of Peru (1821–1842)}}
After the [[Battle of Ayacucho]], Spanish General [[José de Canterac]] signed the final capitulation of the [[Royalist (Spanish American independence)|Royalist Army]] in Peru. Despite the Spanish capitulation, [[Peru–Spain relations|relations]] between both states would not be established until 1879.<ref>{{cite web|title=Relación político-diplomática |url=http://www.embajadaperu.es/la-relacion-bilateral/relacion-politico-diplomatica.html |website=Embajada del Perú en España |date=23 March 2023 |language=es}}</ref> During this era, the '''First Militarism''' ({{langx|es|Primer Militarismo}}), a period where several military figures held control of the country, started in 1827, with [[José de La Mar]]'s presidency.

====Spanish resistance====
By the time the capitulation had been signed, the royalist forces in Peru occupied the southern provinces, slowly surrendering to the rebels. Despite the apparent end of the successful [[Patriot Governments (Spanish American independence)|patriot]] campaigns, two Spanish figures refused to accept the capitulation and established themselves in [[Callao]] and [[Upper Peru]]: [[José Ramón Rodil]] and [[Pedro Antonio Olañeta]], respectively. Additionally, a [[Iquicha|resistance]] in Ayacucho led by [[Antonio Huachaca]] would remain until its dissolution in 1839.

Olañeta, who established himself in [[Potosí]], soon became the focus of a [[Campaign of Sucre in Upper Peru|campaign]] commanded by [[Antonio José de Sucre]]. The campaign began in January and ended in April 1825, with the [[battle of Tumusla]] of April 1, where Olañeta was fatally wounded after being shot and died the day after.

Rodil, on the other hand, established himself in the [[Real Felipe Fortress]] of the port of Callao, near [[Lima]], expecting Spanish reinforcements that would never come. The capital city itself had been retaken by Royalist troops until the arrival of reinforcements for the Patriot side. This led to Rodil's forces being [[Second siege of Callao|besieged]] from December 5, 1824, to January 23, 1826, and becoming the final Spanish stronghold in South America.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dbe.rah.es/biografias/4574/jose-ramon-rodil-y-galloso|title=José Ramón Rodil y Galloso|website=[[Real Academia de la Historia]]}}</ref> The deteriorating conditions of the besieged fortress eventually led to the surrender of Rodil and his forces due to their inability to continue the siege alive.

====Bolivarian era====
[[Simón Bolívar]], who became dictator of Peru on January 17, 1824, notified the [[Constituent Congress of Peru, 1822|Constituent Congress]] of his resignation of his office, which was not accepted, instead being extended until 1827. During this time, he travelled to southern and Upper Peru, and the final [[Flag of Peru|flag]] and [[coat of arms of Peru]] was established on February 25, 1825, the latter designed by {{ill|José Gregorio Paredes|es|José Gregorio Paredes}}.

Upper Peru, whose public opinion was split between joining Peru or the [[United Provinces of the Río de la Plata|United Provinces]], soon saw a new train of thought establish itself, which suggested that the region become an independent state. Soon, the [[State of Upper Peru]] was established as an independent state, later becoming [[Bolivia]]. Bolívar was in charge of the constitution, as well as [[Constitution of Peru (1826)|Peru's]] and later [[Gran Colombia|Colombia's]]. The similarities between the constitutions was related to his desire to establish a federation in America, which led to the [[Congress of Panama]] and later the anti-Bolivarian sentiment that led to him leaving Peru on September 3, 1826. A year later, the Constituent Congress was dissolved.

====Conflict with Bolivia and Colombia====
[[José de La Mar]] became president of Peru on August 22, 1827, having been chosen by the new Congress.<ref>{{Cite web |title=José de La Mar Cortázar |url=https://adonde.com/historia/1822pres_lamar.htm |access-date=2022-12-01 |website=adonde.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-07-08 |title=José de La Mar (periodo: 1827 – 1829) |url=https://historiadelperu.info/presidentes-del-peru/jose-de-la-mar/ |access-date=2022-12-01 |language=es}}</ref> Under his presidency, Peru went to war with Bolivia and Colombia due to the perceived disadvantage that Peru saw itself in due to being surrounded by Bolivarian countries.

A Peruvian [[1828 Peruvian–Bolivian War|invasion of Bolivia]] headed by [[Agustín Gamarra]] began on May 1, 1828.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-09-05 |title=Intervención peruana en Bolivia (primera invasión peruana - 1828) |url=https://www.ibolivia.org/intervencion-peruana-en-bolivia-1828 |access-date=2022-12-01 |website=Portal iBolivia |language=es}}</ref> The Peruvian Army soon occupied the Bolivian [[La Paz Department (Bolivia)|department of La Paz]], established a [[Republic of Alto Perú|pro-Peruvian government]] and successfully deported the Colombian troops stationed in the country via ships paid by Bolivia that departed from the Peruvian port of [[Arica]].

The events in Bolivia led to [[Gran Colombia–Peru War|war between Peru and Colombia]], which ended with the [[Battle of Tarqui]] on February 27, 1829, after which an armistice was signed. The breach of the armistice almost led to a continuation of the war, an event that was prevented by the political instability in Peru that led to the deposition of La Mar by [[Agustín Gamarra]], who signed [[Treaty of Guayaquil|a peace treaty]] with Colombia.

====Later instability====
A [[Peruvian Civil War of 1834|civil war]] broke out in 1834, by revolutionaries who opposed Orbegoso as a successor of Gamarra. Orbegoso proved popular with the population, and the revolution was eventually repressed, with Orbegoso, who had established himself in the Real Felipe Fortress, returning to Lima on May 3, 1834.

Desires to unite the regions of lower and upper Peru eventually led to the [[Salaverry-Santa Cruz War]], which itself led to the establishment of the [[Republic of South Peru]] on March 17, 1836, and the [[Republic of North Peru]] on August 11, 1836, with [[Andrés de Santa Cruz]] appointing himself the Supreme Protector of both states. The establishment of these states later ended with the establishment of the [[Peru–Bolivian Confederation]].

====Peru-Bolivian Confederation (1836–1839)====
[[File:Confederacion Perú Boliviana cronologia.png|thumb|right|275px|Dissolution of Peru-Bolivia:
{{Legend|#C00000|[[Peru–Bolivian Confederation|Peru-Bolivia]]}}
{{Legend|#0000FE|Controlled by the [[United Restoration Army]]}}
{{Legend|#FCC300|[[Peruvian Republic (1837)|First Provisional Government of Peru]]}}
{{Legend|#1dacd6|[[Peruvian Republic (1838-1839)|Northern Peruvian Republic]]}}
{{Legend|#FFFF00|[[Agustín Gamarra#Second presidency and invasion of Bolivia|Second Provisional Government of Peru]]}}
{{Legend|#800080|[[José Miguel de Velasco|Provisional Government of Bolivia]]}}
{{Legend|#E65F00|New [[Peru]]vian State}}
{{Legend|#006400|New [[Bolivia]]n State}}
{{Legend|#000000|Controlled by the United Restoration Army during the ''[[#Restoration (1839–1841)|restoration]]''}}
{{legend-line|solid 2px #000000;|''[[De facto]]'' borders after the dissolution}}
{{Legend|#FE0000|Disputed between [[Peru–Bolivian Confederation|Peru-Bolivia]] and [[Argentine Confederation|Argentina]]}}
{{Legend|#0BDA51|Disputed between [[Bolivia]] and [[Argentine Confederation|Argentina]]}}]]
{{main|Peru-Bolivian Confederation}}
The establishment of the Peru-Bolivian Confederation soon led to war, as Peruvian exiles, as well as neighboring [[Chile]] and [[Argentine Confederation|Argentina]] opposed the existence of the state.

Peruvian opposition manifested itself in the [[War of the Confederation]], which included the secession of [[Peruvian Republic (1838–1839)|North Peru]], whose president, Luis de Orbegoso, established the [[Restoration Army of Peru]] that was defeated at the [[Battle of Portada de Guías|Battle of Guías]]; and the establishment by Peruvian exiles in Chile of the [[United Restoration Army]], which fought against the confederation until its defeat in the [[Battle of Yungay]], which led to its dissolution.

The conflict against the confederation also saw a southern theater, known as the [[War between Argentina and Peru–Bolivian Confederation|War of Tarija]], which was the conflict between Argentina and the Confederation over the territory of [[Tarija Department|Tarija]]. Argentina annexed the territory as a result of the war, later being returned to Bolivia in March 1839.

In addition to the conflict in Tarija, the conflict also began the [[Iquicha War of 1839|Second Iquicha War]], which led to the disestablishment of the royalist autonomy—that had seen [[Iquicha War of 1825–1828|conflict]] a decade earlier—led by Huachaca, who fled to the [[Apurímac Region|Apurímac]] jungle, choosing to remain there while denouncing the republicans as the "antichrists".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.abc.es/historia/abci-caudillo-indigena-enfrento-anticristos-independentistas-america-grito-viva-espana-201904040145_noticia.html|title=El caudillo indígena que se enfrentó a los 'anticristos' independentistas de América al grito de '¡Viva España!'|date=2015-04-04|website=[[ABC (newspaper)|ABC.es]]|last=Cervera|first=César}}</ref>

===Restoration (1839–1841)===
{{main|Restoration (Peru)}}
After the demise in the [[War of the Confederation]], the states of Peru and Bolivia were re-established as independent and separate from each other. The Constituent Congress meeting in [[Huancayo]] ratified [[Agustín Gamarra]] as Provisional President on August 15, 1839, while the [[Constitution of Peru (1839)|new Constitution]] was being written. Once this was approved, and after a general election, Gamarra was proclaimed Constitutional President of Peru on July 10, 1840.

During this second government, treaties were signed with Brazil, the Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe school opened its doors, and [[El Comercio (Peru)|''El Comercio'']] began its publications in 1839. Gamarra followed the same guidelines as his first government, being authoritarian and conservative, as circumstances required, after several years of civil war. He faced the challenge of pacifying the country, having to face the "regenerative" revolution that [[Manuel Ignacio de Vivanco]] led in [[Arequipa]], where he proclaimed himself Supreme Chief of the Republic, in January 1841. To combat it, Gamarra sent his war minister, [[Ramón Castilla]], who after first suffering a defeat in Cachamarca, triumphed over the ''Vivanquistas'' in Cuevillas. After his defeat, Vivanco fled to Bolivia.

Gamarra's desire to unite Bolivia and Peru dovetailed into an attempt to annex Bolivia that ultimately failed and turned into a [[Peruvian-Bolivian War of 1841-1842|protracted war]].<ref>{{cite book |last= Werlich |first= David P. |title= Peru — a short history |publisher= [[Southern Illinois University Press]] |year= 1978 |pages= [https://archive.org/details/perushorthistory00werl/page/70 70–72] |isbn= 0-8093-0830-4 |url-access= registration |url= https://archive.org/details/perushorthistory00werl/page/70 }}</ref> After reaching [[La Paz]] without resistance, Gamarra participated in the [[Battle of Ingavi]], where he was killed in action. In the aftermath of this battle, Bolivia occupied the south of Peru until a Peruvian resistance was established, which led to a counterattack that was ultimately successful due to the limited number of Bolivian troops.

The two nations signed the '''Treaty of Puno''' on June 7, 1842, officially ending the war. Both countries agreed to remain as separate [[sovereign state]]s and the retreat of troops in Peruvian territory was accomplished eight days later.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Preliminary Treaty of Peace and Friendship between Peru and Bolivia|publisher=[[Congress of Peru]]|year=1842|url=https://www.leyes.congreso.gob.pe/Documentos/LeyesXIX/1842045.pdf}}</ref> Bolivia unconditionally renounced all claims in southern Peruvian territory, but nevertheless, the treaty did not manage to solve the border problem or the unionist movement between the two states.

The conflict ended with a return to the situation before the war. Despite this, Peruvian historiography argues that the victories seen in all the battles in Peruvian soil overshadow the defeat at Ingavi, leaving Peru in a more favorable outcome after the end of the war.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Historia de la República del Perú|last=Basadre Grohmann|first=Jorge Alfredo|publisher=Producciones Cantabria|year=1937|isbn=978-612-306-353-5|location=National Library of Peru}}</ref>

===Military anarchy (1841–1845)===
{{main|History of Peru (1841–1845)}}
After Gamarra's death, [[Manuel Menéndez]] was recognized as provisional president. However, several military leaders became involved in a struggle for power: in the north, [[Juan Crisóstomo Torrico]]; in the south, [[Antonio Gutiérrez de La Fuente]], [[Domingo Nieto]] and [[Juan Francisco de Vidal]]; and in Arequipa, [[Manuel Ignacio de Vivanco]]. Menéndez could not maintain power, as he was deposed by Torrico.

The anarchy led to the [[Peruvian Civil War of 1843–1844]]. By then, a government had been established by Vivanco, known as the '''Directory''' ({{langx|es|el Directorio}}). In contrast to this new government, a rebellion led by [[Domingo Nieto]] also sought to establish itself as the legitimate government. On September 3, 1843, the revolutionaries constituted a '''Provisional Government Junta of the Free Departments in Cuzco''' ({{langx|es|Junta de Gobierno Provisional de los Departamentos Libres}}), whose presidency was assumed by Domingo Nieto, who would be succeeded by Castilla after his death in 1844.

The civil war reached its end in the [[Battle of Carmen Alto]] of July 22, 1844, between Vivanco and Castilla's troops near Arequipa. After the defeat of Vivanco's troops, Vivanco himself arrived in Callao on July 27, being arrested by Prefect of Lima, [[Domingo Elías]] and exiled to Chile a few days later. With Castilla as the country's new leader, the anarchy came to an end.

==="Fallacious prosperity" and the Guano Era (1845–1866)===
{{main|History of Peru (1845–1866)}}
After Castilla assumed the presidency of Peru, Peru entered a period of peace and economic prosperity, as the anarchic period had been put to an end, and Peru established a virtual international monopoly in the trade of [[guano]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Szpak |first1=Paul |last2=Millaire |first2=Jean-Francois |last3=White |first3=Christine D. |last4=Longstaffe |first4=Fred J. |year=2012 |title=Influence of seabird guano and camelid dung fertilization on the nitrogen isotopic composition of field-grown maize (Zea mays) | url=https://www.academia.edu/1788506 |journal=[[Journal of Archaeological Science]] |volume=39 |issue=12 |pages=3721–3740 |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2012.06.035 |bibcode=2012JArSc..39.3721S }}</ref> This allowed the government to repay its external debt, earning it international economic prestige. Several reforms, including education, were put into place, and the economy continued to grow until the 1860s.

Castilla was replaced by his advisor [[José Rufino Echenique]] in 1851, who continued his work, as the economy continued to grow. His government was of a conservative nature, which eventually led to conflict with the liberals. On October 23, 1851, Peru signed [[Colombian–Peruvian territorial dispute#1851 Treaty between Peru and Brazil|its first border treaty]] with Brazil, where it ceded territory in the [[Amazon rainforest]] [[Ecuadorian–Peruvian territorial dispute|disputed by Ecuador]], who claimed the territory as its own.

====Liberal Revolution (1854–1855)====
{{main|Liberal Revolution of 1854}}
Echenique was accused of corruption by its opponents, with some pointing out a lavish party that had been hosted by his wife, [[Victoria Tristán]], as proof of his reckless spending, which appeared as an insult to the general poverty of the country.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://blog.pucp.edu.pe/blog/juanluisorrego/2008/12/25/el-baile-de-la-victoria/ |title=25/12/08: El 'Baile de la Victoria' |date=2018-12-25 |website=[[Pontifical Catholic University of Peru|Blog PUCP]] |last=Orrego Penagos |first=Juan Luis}}</ref> Others, such as Domingo Elías, made the accusation on the basis of Echenique being "too generous" regarding his payment of the country's external debt. Amid the growing conflict between the conservative government and the liberal opposition, the [[Liberal Revolution of 1854]] broke out, with the liberals, soon headed by Castilla, defeating the government at the [[Battle of La Palma]] and Castilla being reinstated as president.

Castilla summoned a National Convention whose representatives were elected by direct and universal suffrage, settling on July 14, 1855. This Convention authored the [[Constitution of Peru (1856)|Liberal Constitution of 1856]]. Dissatisfied with the liberal regime that was being established, the conservatives rose up in Arequipa, led by the caudillo Manuel Ignacio de Vivanco, an old rival of Castilla. A [[Peruvian Civil War of 1856–1858|bloody civil war]] broke out, culminating in the triumph of Castilla after the [[Siege of Arequipa|capture of Arequipa]] on March 7, 1858.

====Ecuadorian–Peruvian War (1857–1860)====
{{main|Ecuadorian–Peruvian War (1857–1860)}}
Between 1857 and 1860 a [[Ecuadorian–Peruvian War (1857–1860)|war broke out against Ecuador]] over disputed territories in the Amazon that Ecuador had allegedly sold to British companies to pay for its foreign debt. The Peruvian victory in the war prevented the Ecuadorian claims to settle in the area.<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 September 2016 |title=Guerra peruano - ecuatoriana 1858 - 1860 |url=https://www.iperu.org/guerra-peruano-ecuatoriana-1858-1860 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220615124237/https://www.iperu.org/guerra-peruano-ecuatoriana-1858-1860 |archive-date=2022-06-15 |access-date=14 November 2016 |language=es}}</ref>

====War with Spain====
{{main|Peruvian Civil War of 1865|Chincha Islands War}}
In 1865, [[Peruvian Civil War of 1865|civil war]] broke out, waged by the forces headed by Colonel [[Mariano Ignacio Prado]] against the government of President [[Juan Antonio Pezet]], due to the weakness that he was alleged to have shown in solving the crisis caused by the Spanish occupation of the Chincha Islands, most specifically due to the signing of the [[Vivanco–Pareja Treaty]]. As a result, Pezet was overthrown, and Prado declared an alliance against Spain, alongside Chile, Bolivia and Ecuador, also declaring war on Spain. On May 2, 1866, the [[Battle of Callao]] took place, and a peace treaty was signed in 1879. The expenses caused by the war severely affected the Peruvian economy, which began to decline.

===Economic and international crisis (1866–1884)===
With Prado as provisional and later constitutional president, a [[Constitution of Peru (1867)|new constitution]] was adopted. Its extremely liberal nature led to a [[Peruvian Civil War of 1867|civil war]] headed by [[Pedro Diez Canseco]] and [[José Balta]], which ended Prado's presidency and re-established the [[Constitution of Peru (1860)|1860 constitution]].

The new Balta government appointed a young [[Nicolás de Piérola]] as [[Ministry of Economy and Finance (Peru)|Minister of Economy]], who signed a treaty with the [[History of the Jews in France|Jewish–French]] businessman [[Auguste Dreyfus]]. For its part, the House of Dreyfus paid [[Peruvian sol (1863–1985)|S/.]] two million in advance, and undertook to pay at a rate of [[Peruvian sol (1863–1985)|S/.]] 700 thousand each month and to cover the interest on the Peruvian foreign debt.

As a result of the income from the Dreyfus contract, Peru embarked on a railroad-building program. The American entrepreneur [[Henry Meiggs]] built a standard gauge line from [[Callao]] across the Andes to the interior, [[Huancayo]]; he built the line and controlled its politics for a while; in the end, he bankrupted himself and the country. Financial problems forced the government to take over in 1874. The labor conditions were complex, with conflicts arising from different levels of skill and organization among the North Americans, Europeans, Blacks, and the Chinese. Conditions were very brutal for the Chinese, and led to strikes and violent suppression.<ref>Watt Stewart, ''Henry Meiggs: Yankee Pizarro'' (1946)</ref>

Elections were held in 1872, with [[Manuel Pardo (politician)|Manuel Pardo]] of the [[Civilista Party]] being elected as the first civilian president of Peru. The ascension of a civil government disturbed many members of the military, who believed they would lose the privileges that they had enjoyed until then. Among the concerned were the Gutiérrez brothers, originally from [[Huancarqui District|Huancarqui]]. The brothers, headed by Colonel [[Tomás Gutiérrez]], carried out a [[1872 Peruvian coup d'état attempt|coup d'état]] against Balta on July 22, 1872. The new government lasted until the 26th, when the brothers were overthrown, with three of them being killed and only one surviving.

Pardo became president on August 2, ending the ''First Militarism'' that had existed since 1827. Under his government, the [[Treaty of Defensive Alliance (Bolivia–Peru)|Treaty of Defensive Alliance]] was signed with Bolivia, which would lead Peru to fight against Chile 7 years later.

====War of the Pacific====
{{main|War of the Pacific}}
[[File:Treaty of Ancón.svg|thumb|left|Territorial changes after the war]]
In 1879, Peru entered the [[War of the Pacific]],<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2014-08-20 |title=Guerra del Pacífico o Guerra del Perú y Chile |url=https://historiaperuana.pe/periodo-independiente/republica/guerra-peru-chile-del-pacifico |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210307050104/https://historiaperuana.pe/periodo-independiente/republica/guerra-peru-chile-del-pacifico |archive-date=2021-03-07 |access-date=2022-07-17 |website=Historia del Perú |language=es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=El impacto de la guerra del Pacífico (1879-1929) - Memoria Chilena |url=http://www.memoriachilena.gob.cl/602/w3-article-100610.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220128011416/http://www.memoriachilena.gob.cl/602/w3-article-100610.html |archive-date=2022-01-28 |access-date=2022-07-17 |website=Memoria Chilena: Portal |language=es}}</ref> after Bolivia invoked its alliance with Peru against Chile.<ref>{{Cite web |title=El Tratado de Alianza Defensiva de 1873 entre el Perú y Bolivia |url=https://plumainquieta.lamula.pe/2016/09/19/el-tratado-de-alianza-defensiva-de-1873-entre-el-peru-y-bolivia/hubert/ |access-date=2022-07-17 |website=plumainquieta.lamula.pe |language=es}}</ref> The [[Peruvian Government]] tried to mediate the dispute by sending a diplomatic team to negotiate with the Chilean government, but the committee concluded that war was inevitable. On 14 March 1879, Bolivia declared war and Chile, in response, declared war on Bolivia and Peru on 5 April 1879 with Peru following with its own declaration of war the next day.

The Chilean land campaigns in [[Tarapacá campaign|Tarapacá]], [[Tacna and Arica campaign|Tacna and Arica]], [[Lima campaign|Lima]] and [[Sierra campaign|Breña]] eventually led to the [[Chilean occupation of Peru|Chilean occupation]] of these territories, which were administered from [[Occupation of Lima|occupied Lima]]. In parallel with the occupying administration, a collaborationist government was also established in Lima under the [[Protectorate|protection]] of Chile. The government was [[Francisco García Calderón|initially]] based in [[Palacio de la Magdalena (Peru)|La Magdalena]], and then in [[Miguel Iglesias government|Cajamarca]]. This government's legitimacy was disputed by the [[Resistance (War of the Pacific)|Peruvian Resistance]], which continued fighting in the ''sierra''. The Chilean [[Naval campaign of the War of the Pacific|naval campaign]] also proved crucial, and allowed for attacks in the northern coast of the country. One notable figure of this campaign, who is held in high esteem by Peruvians and Chileans alike, was [[Miguel Grau]], who was killed in action during the [[Battle of Angamos]], and whose ship, the [[Huáscar (ironclad)|''Huáscar'']], was captured by the [[Chilean Navy]].
[[File:Batalla en guerra del Pacifico (1879-1883).png|thumb|1882-83 Sierra Campaign]]
The war reached its peak after the [[Battle of Tacna]], which effectively destroyed the Peruvian–Bolivian alliance, and ended with a Chilean victory over Peru and Bolivia, with the former's government in Lima signing the [[Treaty of Ancón]] in 1883, where the [[Tarapacá Department (Peru)|Department of Tarapacá]] was ceded to Chile and the fates of the provinces of [[Tacna Province|Tacna]] and [[Arica Province (Peru)|Arica]] were to be decided by a plebiscite that was meant to take place ten years after the treaty, but would eventually never take place.

The question over the Peruvian provinces of Tacna and Arica would manifest itself as the [[Chilean–Peruvian territorial dispute]], while the Bolivian reaction to the loss of its [[Litoral Department]], and thus, its access to the sea, would manifest itself as the [[Atacama border dispute|Bolivian–Chilean territorial dispute]], and commemorated annually with the ''[[Día del Mar]]''.

===National reconstruction (1884–1895)===
{{main|National Reconstruction (Peru)}}
After the [[War of the Pacific]], an extraordinary effort of rebuilding began, and military figures once again assumed control of the government due to the perceived weakness of civilian heads of state in a period of constant war, beginning the '''Second Militarism''' ({{langx|es|Segundo Militarismo}}). In contrast to the ''First Militarism'', the military leaders returned to the political arena, but no longer as triumphant heroes, but as the defeated. The government started to initiate a number of social and economic reforms in order to recover from the damage of the war.

During this period, the occupied provinces of Tacna and Arica were subject to a process known as [[Chilenization of Tacna, Arica and Tarapacá|Chilenization]], where Chilean culture was promoted in order to replace Peruvian culture. Groups known as [[Patriotic Leagues (Southern Cone)|Patriotic Leagues]] were also established in order to encourage Peruvians to leave, while Chilean families soon began to emigrate to the region. Those who left established themselves mainly in Callao or participated in the colonization project carried out by the local government in [[Department of Loreto|Loreto]] to counter [[Colombian–Peruvian territorial dispute|Colombian claims]] over the region, establishing the settlements of [[Puerto Arica]] and [[Tarapacá, Amazonas|Tarapacá]]. After the signing of the [[Salomón–Lozano Treaty]] in 1922, these settlements would be ceded to Colombia, with some settlers moving to Peru and establishing the settlements of [[Nuevo Tarapacá]] and [[Puerto Arica (Maynas)|Puerto Arica]].

Due to Iglesias' re-establishment of the [[Encomienda|indigenous tribute]] and abuses committed against Indians by landowners, on March 1, 1885, a [[Huaraz Rebellion|rebellion]] in [[Huaraz]] headed by [[Pedro Pablo Atusparía]] began, with the conflict coming to an end only in 1887.

====Conflict between Iglesias and Cáceres====
Miguel Iglesias' [[Miguel Iglesias government|Regenerator Government]] that had been established under Chilean occupation and signed the [[Treaty of Ancón]] continued to function as the constitutional government of Peru. During this period, [[Andrés Avelino Cáceres]], who had fought the [[Sierra campaign|Breña campaign]] and was known as the ''Hero of Breña'', opposed Iglesias and received more popular support than Iglesias' government.

Iglesias attempted to negotiate with Cáceres for his support. Eventually, negotiations failed and he demanded his unconditional submission. For his part, Cáceres proceeded to proclaim himself President on July 16, 1884, arguing the breakdown of the constitutional order. This disagreement led to the [[Peruvian Civil War of 1884–1885]].

The forces of Iglesias and Cáceres initially clashed in Lima and later in Trujillo. Faced with his defeats on the north coast, Cáceres withdrew to the south center: Cuzco, Arequipa, Apurímac and Ayacucho, where he was able to reorganize his army to attack again. He ordered his troops to be defeated near Jauja while he moved his best troops to [[Huaripampa District|Huaripampa]], who cut off bridges that would've allowed Iglesias' troops return and eventually moved to Lima where they carried out a successful offensive against Iglesias, ending the civil war. Iglesias would be exiled to [[Restoration (Spain)|Spain]], only returning in 1895 after being elected as senator for Cajamarca, dying later in 1909.

====Conflict between Cáceres and de Piérola====
Cáceres assumed the presidency for the second time, on August 10, 1894. But he lacked legitimacy and popularity. The Anti-Cacerists formed the National Coalition, made up of democrats and civil supporters, who elected [[Nicolás de Piérola]] as leader, then exiled in Chile. Throughout Peru, groups of ''Montoneros'' arose that joined the cause of the Coalition. Piérola returned to Peru, disembarked in Puerto Caballas, in Ica, and went to [[Chincha Alta|Chincha]], where he gave a Manifesto to the Nation, taking the title of National Delegate, and immediately campaigning on Lima, leading the Montoneros. They attacked the capital from March 17 to 19, 1895. Seeing himself deprived of the support of the people, turned massively towards the coalition partners, Cáceres resigned and went into exile.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gobierno de Nicolás de Piérola (1895 - 1899) - Carpetapedagogica.com |url=https://carpetapedagogica.com/gobiernodenicolasdepierola |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220712200547/https://carpetapedagogica.com/gobiernodenicolasdepierola |archive-date=2022-07-12 |access-date=2022-07-12 |website=carpetapedagogica.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Biografia de Nicolás de Piérola |url=https://www.biografiasyvidas.com/biografia/p/pierola.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220712200547/https://www.biografiasyvidas.com/biografia/p/pierola.htm |archive-date=2022-07-12 |access-date=2022-07-12 |website=biografiasyvidas.com}}</ref>

A Government Board was installed after the victory in Lima of Piérola's montoneros and the departure of Cáceres into exile, and [[Manuel Candamo]] was elected president of a Government Board, to which he did not belong, taking charge of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs; He spent six months in that position, from March 20 to September 8, 1895, when he handed over the command to Piérola, winner of the elections. After a brief period in which the military once again controlled the country, civilian rule was permanently established with Pierola's election in 1895. His second term was successfully completed in 1899 and was marked by his reconstruction of a devastated Peru by initiating fiscal, military, religious, and civil reforms. With the county in a delicate state, political stability was achieved only in the early 1900s.

===Aristocratic Republic (1895–1919)===
{{main|Aristocratic Republic (Peru)}}
With de Piérola elected president of Peru, the country began its period known as the ''Aristocratic Republic'' ({{langx|es|República Aristocrática}}), owing its name to the fact that most of the presidents that ruled the country during this period were from the country's social elite.

Economic dependence on English and American capitalism was accentuated and new economic activities were developed: agro-export (sugar and cotton), rubber extraction and oil extraction. However, the country did not industrialize due to the fact that a purely [[Economism|economistic]] development perspective was formed through a [[rentier state|rentier]] and [[Primary sector of the economy|primary exporter]] state, which increased discrimination and exploitation of indigenous peoples through ''Correríos'', ''Yanaconajes'' and ''Enganches''. One such example was the [[Putumayo genocide]], which took place during the [[Amazon rubber boom]]. The discomfort of the popular classes was manifested in the emergence of the anarcho-syndicalist labor movement and the outbreak of strikes.

This period of history soon saw its first conflicts, with its first one taking place in 1896. Separatists in Loreto [[Loretan Insurrection of 1896|revolted against the government]], seceded from Peru, and established the short lived [[Federal State of Loreto]]. The government's response was to send troops to the area in order to suppress the insurrection, which was accomplished. A couple of years later, Colonel and Prefect of Loreto Emilio Vizcarra seceded from Peru and proclaimed the [[Jungle Nation|Jungle Republic]], an unrecognized secessionist state whose declared borders coincided with those of the Loreto Department, at the time composed of the modern departments of [[Department of Loreto|Loreto]], [[Department of San Martín|San Martín]], and [[Department of Ucayali|Ucayali]]. President [[Eduardo López de Romaña]] immediately sent troops to deal with the situation and the state ceased to exist in 1900.<ref name="region">{{Cite web |title=Loreto: ¿Estado Federal o República |url=https://diariolaregion.com/web/loreto-estado-federal-o-republica/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028225813/https://diariolaregion.com/web/loreto-estado-federal-o-republica/ |archive-date=2021-10-28 |access-date= |website=diariolaregion.com |date=20 April 2015 |language=es}}</ref>

[[Salt Tax Revolt (Peru)|Another conflict]] took place in [[Huanta]], as a result of reforms, that included the establishment of a salt tax and the ban on circulation of [[Boliviano (1864–1963)|Bolivian currency]] in the region. Among the participants of this conflict were veterans of previous conflicts, such as the Breña campaign and of the civil war of 1884–85.

====The twenty-four friends====
One group prevalent in the country's aristocracy was known as ''the twenty-four friends'' ({{langx|es|Los veinticuatro amigos}}), whose members were affiliated with the [[Civilista Party]]. Traditionally it is said that it was founded in a meeting on July 28, 1892. Most of the families that belonged to this group were rentiers, landowners, bankers, businessmen who produced sugar and cotton, newspaper owners, and renowned intellectuals and professionals who belonged to the [[Club Nacional (Peru)|National Club]], where they met weekly on Fridays. The members of the club were:<ref>{{Cite book |title=El Perú desde la intimidad. Epistolario de Manuel Candamo (1873-1904) |last=De la Puente Candamo |first=José Agustín |year=2008 |location=Lima |pages=48 |language=es}}</ref>

*{{ill|Francisco Rosas Balcázar|es}}, diplomat and politician, minister during the government of Manuel Pardo y Lavalle
*Luis Carranza: co-director of ''[[El Comercio (Peru)|El Comercio]]''.
*{{ill|Pedro Correa y Santiago|es}}, businessman and politician.
*José Antonio Miró Quesada: director and owner of ''El Comercio''.
*Louis Dubois.
*Narciso de Aramburú.
*[[Ernest Malinowski]], Polish engineer.
*Armando Velez.
*{{ill|Domingo Olavegoya Yriarte|es}}, businessman and landowner.
*[[Isaac Alzamora]], renowned lawyer.
*{{ill|Luis Felipe Villarán|es}}: lawyer and minister during the government of Manuel Candamo.
*[[Domingo M. Almenara Butler]].
*{{ill|Estanislao Pardo de Figueroa y de Águila|es}}: lawyer and politician.
*Pedro D. Gallagher Robertson-Gibbs: mining businessman, banker, president of the Chamber of Commerce.
*Ezequiel Álvarez-Calderón
*Manuel Álvarez-Calderón, businessman.
*Calixto Pfeiffer
*[[Carlos Ferreyros]], politician.
*{{ill|Enrique Barreda y Osma|es}}, businessman and politician.
*{{ill|Ántero Aspíllaga Barrera|es}}, businessman and politician.
*{{ill|Luis N. Bryce y de Vivero|es}}, businessman and politician.
*Alejandro Garland, businessman.
*Leonidas Cárdenas

Other characters that also would make up the select group were:
*{{ill|Felipe de Osma y Pardo|es}}
*[[Augusto B. Leguía]]
*{{ill|Felipe Pardo y Barreda|es}}
*[[Francisco Tudela y Varela]]
*[[Antonio Miró Quesada de la Guerra]]
*{{ill|José Pardo y Aliaga|es}}
*{{ill|Víctor Manuel Maúrtua|es}}

====Territorial disputes====
[[File:Intento de golpe de Estado en Perú de 1909.png|thumb|left|The [[Plaza Mayor, Lima|Main Square of Lima]] during the attempted coup of 1909.]]
[[Augusto B. Leguía]]'s first presidency took place during this period, during which he was faced with territorial disputes between all neighboring countries of Peru, of which only the Brazilian and [[Bolivian–Peruvian territorial dispute|Bolivian]] territorial disputes were solved on September 8 and [[Polo-Bustamante Treaty|17 September]], 1909, respectively. Skirmishes took place in 1910 with Ecuador and in 1911 with Colombia, the latter of which became known as the [[Battle of La Pedrera|La Pedrera conflict]]. Due to Chile's continuing [[Chilenization]] policies in Tacna and Arica, relations between both states were severed.

Leguía also had to face internal conflict, including an [[1909 Peruvian coup d'état attempt|attempted coup d'état]] in 1909, carried out by Nicolás de Piérola's brother Carlos with his children. Leguía separated from the Civilista Party, which split into two factions: those loyal to Pardo and those loyal to Leguía. In the last two years of his government, an acute economic crisis manifested itself, motivated by accelerated internal indebtedness, national defense expenses and the budget deficit.

[[Guillermo Billinghurst]] wanted to favor the working class, which earned him opposition from conservative elements. He had a tenacious struggle with Congress, dominated by ''civilistas'' and ''leguiistas'', his political enemies. It was then proposed to dissolve parliament and summon the people to carry out fundamental constitutional reforms, which provoked the military uprising of Colonel [[Óscar R. Benavides]], known as the ''hero of La Pedrera'', who overthrew Billinghurst on February 4, 1914.

After assuming control of the government, Benavides faced the monetary problem and promised to restore the legal order. In 1915 he convened a Convention of the civilist, liberal and constitutional parties, so that they could launch a unified candidacy. The chosen one was former president José Pardo y Barreda, of the Civilista Party, who overwhelmingly won the elections that year, defeating the symbolic candidacy of Carlos de Piérola, of the Democratic Party.

The second government of José Pardo was characterized by political and social violence, a symptom of the exhaustion of civil society and the world crisis. As a result of the [[First World War]], the economic condition of the working class worsened and the field was prepared for the development of trade union action. There were successive strikes that demanded the reduction of subsistence prices and the implementation of the "8-hour work" day; the latter was finally granted, by decree of January 15, 1919. In the southern Andes, the abuses of landowners and gamonales on the native and peasant population motivated many indigenous uprisings, such as the one led in 1915 by [[Teodomiro Gutiérrez Cuevas]], also known by his pseudonym ''Rumi Maqui''.

Pardo called for elections in 1919, in which former president Augusto B. Leguía ran, who faced the official candidacy represented by {{ill|Ántero Aspíllaga|es|Ántero Aspíllaga}}. The elections, which were not deemed very fair, declared Leguía the winner, but numerous votes were annulled in the official recount. Faced with the danger that the elections would be annulled and that they would be transferred to Congress, where the civilistas had a majority, Leguía and his supporters staged a coup, with the support of the gendarmerie, on July 4, 1919. Thus ended the "Aristocratic Republic" and began what would become Leguía's ''Oncenio''.

===The ''Oncenio'' (1919–1930)===
{{main|History of Peru (1919–1930)}}
As had happened with his previous government, the entrance of American capital became general and the [[bourgeoisie]] was favored.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2013-12-13 |title=El Oncenio de Leguía |url=https://historiaperuana.pe/periodo-independiente/republica/oncenio-leguia |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210726232506/https://historiaperuana.pe/periodo-independiente/republica/oncenio-leguia |archive-date=2021-07-26 |access-date=2022-07-11 |website=Historia del Perú |language=es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zegarra |first1=Marty Ames |last2=Lazo |first2=Ana María Angeles |date=2018 |title=El oncenio de Leguía en la política exterior para determinar los límites con Colombia (1919-1930) |url=https://revistagobiernoygestionpublica.usmp.edu.pe/index.php/RGGP/article/view/112 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004033243/https://revistagobiernoygestionpublica.usmp.edu.pe/index.php/RGGP/article/view/112 |url-status=dead |archive-date=October 4, 2022 |journal=Revista Gobierno y Gestión Pública |language=es |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=74–119 |doi=10.24265/iggp.2018.v5n2.05 |doi-broken-date=2024-11-13 |s2cid=239288758 |issn=2414-4991 |doi-access=free |hdl=20.500.12727/3946 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> This policy, along with increased dependence on foreign investment, focused opposition from the most progressive sectors of Peruvian society against the landowner oligarchy.

The presidency of Leguía coincided with the [[Centennial of the Independence of Peru|centennial celebrations]] of Peru's independence on July 28, 1921, and in 1924, commemorating the Battle of Ayacucho.<ref>{{Cite news |title="No creo que se hagan tantas obras como en el Centenario" |url=https://larepublica.pe/sociedad/809810-no-creo-que-se-hagan-tantas-obras-como-en-el-centenario/ |last=Páucar |first=Carlos |date=2019-05-26 |work=[[La República (Peru)|La República]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Leguía y la fiesta del centenario |url=https://larepublica.pe/19-02-2012/leguia-y-la-fiesta-del-centenario/ |last=Mendoza |first=Raúl |date=2012-02-19 |work=[[La República (Peru)|La República]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170622233404/https://larepublica.pe/19-02-2012/leguia-y-la-fiesta-del-centenario/ |archive-date=2017-06-22}}</ref> Leguía referred to his government as the '''New Motherland''' ({{langx|es|La Nueva Patria}}), which became known for its urban transformation of [[Lima]] to coincide with the aforementioned centennial.

====Territorial disputes====
[[File:Tacna-Arica Dispute (1883-1929).svg|thumb|left|Map showing the Tacna-Arica dispute and its solution]]
A final peace treaty was signed between Peru and Chile in 1929, known as the [[Treaty of Lima (1929)|Treaty of Lima]]. As per the treaty, [[Tacna Province (Chile)|Tacna]] returned to Peru and Peru yielded permanently the formerly rich provinces of Arica and Tarapacá, but kept certain rights to the port activities in Arica and restrictions on what Chile can do on those territories. The treaty was controversial in Peru, but nevertheless put a major end to the [[Chilean–Peruvian territorial dispute]].

In 1921, Peruvian captain [[Guillermo Cervantes]] declared the [[Third Federal State of Loreto|Federal State of Loreto]], which existed as a ''[[de facto]]'' [[Autonomy|autonomous]] region of the country. The rebel authorities authorized the distribution of provisional banknotes made out of cardboard used by locals as currency, and local ports were ordered shut, with local trade and navigation being tightly controlled. The revolution was quickly accepted by the local population, but was met negatively by Peru's president [[Augusto Leguía]], who sent a few troops to the area, and shut down trade to the region. The local guerrillas' military inferiority soon became apparent, and by early 1922, a famished Iquitos had been occupied by Peruvian troops headed by Peruvian Captain Genaro Matos, while Cervantes had escaped on January 9 and sought refuge in the [[Ecuador]]ian jungle and his army soon became little more than an insurgency.

In 1922, another treaty, the [[Salomón–Lozano Treaty]], was signed between Peru and [[Colombia]] with the [[United States]] acting as a mediator, where a large amount of territory was ceded to Colombia allowing them access to the [[Amazon River]], further reducing Peru's territory with the exception of a ''de jure'' [[Sucumbíos Triangle|exclave in Sucumbíos]]. This treaty also proved controversial, most notably in Loreto, as protests took place and local dissatisfaction would eventually lead to the [[Leticia Incident]] in 1932. Nevertheless, the treaty also ended the [[Colombian–Peruvian territorial dispute]], although it was also disputed by Ecuador.

In 1924, from [[Mexico]], university reform leaders in Peru who had been forced into exile by the government founded the [[American People's Revolutionary Alliance|American People's Revolutionary Alliance (APRA)]], which had a major influence on the country's political life. APRA is largely a political expression of the university reform and workers' struggles of the years 1918–1920. The movement draws its influences from the [[Mexican Revolution]] and its [[1917 Constitution]], particularly on issues of [[agrarianism]] and [[indigenism]], and to a lesser extent from the [[Russian Revolution]]. Close to [[Marxism]] (its leader, [[Haya de la Torre]], declares that "APRA is the Marxist interpretation of the American reality"), it nevertheless moves away from it on the question of class struggle and on the importance given to the struggle for the political unity of Latin America.<ref>Latin America in the 20th century: 1889–1929, 1991, p. 314-319</ref>

In 1928, the [[Peruvian Communist Party|Peruvian Socialist Party]] was founded,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mariategui (1928): Acta de constitución del Partido Socialista Peruano. |url=https://www.marxists.org/espanol/mariateg/1928/oct/07.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508212502/https://www.marxists.org/espanol/mariateg/1928/oct/07.htm |archive-date=2021-05-08 |access-date=2022-07-12 |website=marxists.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Zapata |first=Joe |year=2018 |title=HISTORIA. A 90 años de la fundación del Partido Socialista del Perú |url=http://www.laizquierdadiario.com/A-90-anos-de-la-fundacion-del-Partido-Socialista-del-Peru |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220712200555/https://www.laizquierdadiario.com/A-90-anos-de-la-fundacion-del-Partido-Socialista-del-Peru |archive-date=2022-07-12 |access-date=2022-07-12 |website=La Izquierda Diario - Red internacional |language=es}}</ref> notably under the leadership of [[José Carlos Mariátegui]], himself a former member of APRA.<ref>[https://repositorio.uca.edu.ar/bitstream/123456789/10527/1/socialismo-peruano-pensamiento-mariategui.pdf Archived copy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220712200548/https://repositorio.uca.edu.ar/bitstream/123456789/10527/1/socialismo-peruano-pensamiento-mariategui.pdf |date=2022-07-12 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Visitante |date=2017-01-09 |title=Mariátegui: su propuesta marxista para una transformación política y cultural de Perú |url=https://www.centrocultural.coop/revista/3/mariategui-su-propuesta-marxista-para-una-transformacion-politica-y-cultural-de-peru |access-date=2022-07-12 |website=Centro Cultural de la Cooperación |language=es}}</ref> Shortly afterwards, in 1929, the party created the [[Confederación General de Trabajadores del Perú|General Confederation of Workers]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=cgtp |date=2018-03-16 |title=ANTECEDENTES HISTÓRICOS |url=http://www.cgtp.org.pe/2018/03/16/historia/ |access-date=2022-07-12 |website=CGTP |language=es-PE}}</ref>

After the worldwide [[crisis of 1929]], numerous brief governments followed one another. The APRA party had the opportunity to cause system reforms by means of political actions, but it was not successful. This was a nationalistic movement, populist and anti-imperialist, headed by [[Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre]] in 1924. The Socialist Party of Peru, later the [[Peruvian Communist Party]], was created four years later and it was led by [[José Carlos Mariátegui]].

This period would come to an end after a coup d'état carried out by [[Lieutenant colonel]] [[Luis Miguel Sánchez Cerro]] and his sympathizers,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-08-20 |title=Luis Miguel Sánchez Cerro, Presidente del Perú en 1930 y 1931 |url=https://www.iperu.org/luis-miguel-sanchez-cerro |access-date=2022-07-14 |website=Portal iPerú |language=es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=DePeru.com |title=25 de Agosto - Golpe de Estado de 1930 |url=https://www.deperu.com/calendario/1436/golpe-de-estado-de-1930 |access-date=2022-07-14 |website=DePeru.com |language=es}}</ref> with General [[Manuel María Ponce Brousset]] assuming the interim Presidency for two days until Sánchez Cerro's return to [[Lima]] from [[Arequipa]].

===Third Militarism (1930–1939)===
With Leguía overthrown, the country entered its '''Third Militarism''' ({{langx|es|Tercer militarismo}}), as military figures once again took control of the government. A military junta was established, and [[Manuel María Ponce Brousset]] was the first to assume the presidency, being succeeded by the more popular [[Luis Miguel Sánchez Cerro]], who was the first Peruvian President to have [[Indigenous Peruvians|Indigenous Peruvian]] ancestry<ref>{{cite book|title=Argentina, Brazil and Chile Since Independence|author=George Washington University Seminar Conference on Hispanic American Affairs, James Fred Rippy, Alva Curtis Wilgus|publisher=Russell & Russell|year=1963|pages=11}}</ref>  as well as allegedly also being of [[Afro-Peruvian]] [[Malagasy people|Malagasy]] descent based on a rumour he was from a part of [[Piura]] populated by descendants of Malagasy slaves.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.adonde.com/presidentes/1930sanchezcerro.htm |title=El primer mestizo que llegó al poder |access-date=2022-10-05 |archive-date=2017-07-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170711015940/http://adonde.com/presidentes/1930sanchezcerro.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>El escritor [[Mario Vargas Llosa]], piurano por adopción, dice al respecto en sus memorias: «La leyenda inventó que el general Sánchez Cerro —dictador que fundó la UR y que fue asesinado por un aprista el 30 de abril de 1933— había nacido en La Mangachería y por eso todos los mangaches eran urristas, y todas las cabañas de barro y caña brava de ese barrio de calles de tierra y lleno de churres y piajenos (como se llama a los niños y a los burros en la jerga piurana) lucían bailoteando en las paredes alguna descolorida imagen de Sánchez Cerro.» (''El pez en el agua'', 1993, pág. 27).</ref> Other major events of this period were the beginning of the irruption of the organized masses in politics and the growth of the middle classes.

Sánchez Cerro called for elections while in power, intending to run as a candidate. Due to this, a revolt took place in Arequipa, where Sánchez Cerro was forced to resign. As a result, then Archbishop of Lima, Monsignor {{ill|Mariano Holguín|es|Mariano Holguín}} took over the junta on April 1, 1931. After a few hours, Holguín transferred his power to [[Ricardo Leoncio Elías Arias|Leoncio Elías]]. Elías had called a meeting where it was agreed that [[David Samanez Ocampo]] would become the new head of state, but arrangements for this never took place, as he was overthrown by [[Gustavo Jiménez]], who had returned from Arequipa, where he had travelled to stop the revolt. Nevertheless, Samanez Ocampo, who was chosen due to his popularity, assumed the presidency on March 11, 1931, and called for elections on October 11 of the same year. As a result, Sánchez Cerro was elected president of Peru.
[[File:Sánchez Cerro - Constitución de 1933.JPG|thumb|left|Sánchez Cerro during the signing ceremony of the [[Constitution of Peru (1933)|new constitution]] on April 9, 1933.]]
Sánchez Cerro's government was opposed by the left-wing [[American Popular Revolutionary Alliance]], and, as a result, political repression was brutal in the early 1930s, with tens of thousands of ''Apristas'' were executed or imprisoned. A [[1932 Trujillo uprising|revolt]] that took place in Trujillo and was brutally repressed was one such example.

This period was also characterized by a sudden population growth and an increase in urbanization. According to [[Alberto Flores Galindo]], "By the 1940 census, the last that utilized racial categories, [[mestizo]]s were grouped with whites, and the two constituted more than 53 percent of the population. Mestizos likely outnumbered the indigenous peoples and were the largest population group."<ref>{{Cite book| last = Galindo| first = Alberto Flores | title = In Search of an Inca: Identity and Utopia in the Andes| publisher = Cambridge University Press| year = 2010| page = 247| isbn = 978-0-521-59861-3}}</ref>

Under Sánchez Cerro's constitutional government, a [[Constitution of Peru (1933)|new constitution]] would be adopted, and works such as the construction of the ''[[Carretera Central (Peru)|Carretera Central]]'', which connected Lima with [[La Oroya]], [[Tarma]] and [[La Merced, Junín|La Merced]] and the investment in the [[Peruvian Armed Forces]] took place. The latter proved to be an important part of the government, as all three branches of the Armed Forces would soon become involved in the [[Colombian–Peruvian territorial dispute|conflict with Colombia]], that would erupt into armed conflict in September 1932.

====Conflict with Colombia====
[[File:Ocupación peruana de Leticia.jpg|thumb|left|The [[flag of Peru]] flies over the port of Leticia after the takeover]]
The foreign policy of Sánchez Cerro's government was initially intended to respect the border treaties signed up to that point, but public opposition to the [[Salomón–Lozano Treaty]] eventually led to a [[Leticia Incident|civilian takeover]] of the port town of [[Leticia, Amazonas|Leticia]], which ended up being supported by the government. The event led to protests in [[Colombia]], and the beginning of the [[Colombia–Peru War]] on September 1, 1932.

On April 30, 1933, while reviewing troops in the [[El Campo de Marte|Santa Beatriz Hipodrome]], Sánchez Cerro was [[Assassination of Luis Miguel Sánchez Cerro|assassinated]] by Abelardo González Leiva, who shot him three times. It was later publicized that González was a member of the APRA Party, leading to speculation on whether he had been ordered to carry out the attack or had acted alone. Sánchez Cerro's was succeeded as Supreme Chief of his political party, [[Revolutionary Union (Peru)|Revolutionary Union]], by [[Luis A. Flores]], who reconstructed the party into a more [[Fascism|fascist]] direction, modelling it after the [[National Fascist Party]] of [[Italy under fascism|Italy]].

====Final years====
[[Óscar R. Benavides]] assumed the presidency as a result of Sánchez Cerro's assassination and upheld the Salomón–Lozano Treaty with Colombia, leading to the end of the war. He also signed the General Amnesty Law on August 9, 1933, which favored the ''Apristas''. But after a revolutionary attempt in [[El Agustino]], the anti-''Aprista'' persecution resumed. The ''Apristas'' responded with terrorist acts throughout the country, including the assassination of [[Antonio Miró Quesada de la Guerra|Antonio Miró Quesada]], owner of [[El Comercio (Peru)|''El Comercio'']], and his wife on May 15, 1935.

Under Benavides' government, new ministries were created and tourism was promoted. The [[Government Palace, Peru|Government Palace]] was renovated in 1937, the [[Legislative Palace (Peru)|Legislative Palace]] and [[Palace of Justice, Lima|Palace of Justice]] were finished, and social works were put into place, including the construction of dining rooms and sewers.

During this period, the [[Spanish Civil War]] began in 1936. As a result, pro-[[Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)|Republican]] and pro-[[Nationalist faction (Spanish Civil War)|Nationalist]] factions were established by the Spanish residents in Peru, as well as their Peruvian sympathizers. The former was more popular among left-leaning groups, including the ''Apristas'', while the latter was more popular among the aristocracy and the Spanish expatriates living in Peru, evoking the feeling of the ''[[Hispanidad]]''. A ''Spanish–Peruvian Clothing Fund'' ({{langx|es|Ropero Peruano Español}}) was established in Lima, which was nominally in charge of delivering clothing to the children of both factions, but ended up assisting the Nationalist faction almost exclusively. As a result of its support of the [[Francisco Franco|Francoist]] side, Peru did not receive [[Spanish Republican government in exile|Republican exiles]] after the war, instead continuing its relations with the new government in [[Francoist Spain|Spain]].<ref>{{Cite journal |title=El Perú y la Guerra Civil Española |journal=Revista de Antropología y Sociología: Virajes |url=https://revistasojs.ucaldas.edu.co/index.php/virajes/article/view/930 |last=Bonilla |first=Heraclio |issue=2 |volume=16 |pages=213–228 |via=[[University of Caldas]] |year=2014}}</ref> The conflict increased the divide between the right and left-leaning sectors of society, most notably in cities such as [[Arequipa]].<ref>{{Cite journal |title=La Representación de la Guerra Civil Española por la Prensa Escrita Arequipeña (1936-1939) |last=Nalvarte Lozada |first=Juan Carlos |journal=Historelo. Revista de Historia Regional y Local |publisher=[[Universidad Católica de San Pablo]] |year=2019 |volume=11 |issue=21 |pages=173–210 |location=Arequipa |doi=10.15446/historelo.v11n21.73096 |s2cid=239136910 |language=es |doi-access=free }}</ref>

During the last years of the Benavides government, the weariness of the population became noticeable. On February 19, 1939, General [[Antonio Rodríguez Ramírez]] attempted a coup, apparently with great support from various sectors. Although said caudillo was killed in the Government Palace after being machine-gunned by a police officer, Benavides understood the message and called for [[1939 Peruvian general election|general elections]], that took place on October 22 of the same year. The government's candidate and the son of former President [[Mariano Ignacio Prado]], banker [[Manuel Prado Ugarteche]], easily beat his opponent, lawyer {{ill|José Quesada Larrea|es|José Quesada Larrea}}. As a result, there was talk of electoral fraud.

===Democratic Spring (1939–1948)===
With Prado as president, the '''Democratic Spring''' ({{langx|es|Primavera Democrática}}) began. Despite the new civilian government, this era would be characterized by two major military conflicts: the [[Ecuadorian–Peruvian War]] and [[World War II]].

Manuel Prado assumed the presidency on December 8, 1939, beginning what would be his first government. A previously largely unknown politician, he was predicted to not last long in office, but he displayed a strategic flexibility that eventually earned him support. His government largely continued the work started by General Benavides, maintaining strong links with the oligarchy. It was a relative democracy. He kept the Aprista Party outlawed and received the support of the [[Peruvian Communist Party|Communist Party]].

During his tenure as president, skirmishes took place with Ecuador starting on July 5, 1941, beginning the [[Ecuadorian–Peruvian War]]. With the events escalating to a point where the [[Peruvian Air Force|Peruvian Air Corps]] was bombarding Ecuadorian outposts along the [[Ecuador–Peru border|border]], an [[Battle of Zarumilla|offensive]] by Peru began on July 23, with Peruvian troops marching into the Ecuadorian provinces of [[El Oro Province|El Oro]], as well as [[Loja Province|Loja]], {{ill|Santiago Zamora Province|es|Provincia de Santiago Zamora|lt=Santiago Zamora}} and {{ill|Napo Pastaza Province|es|Provincia de Napo Pastaza|lt=Napo Pastaza}}. A ceasefire was declared effective on the afternoon of July 31, which was preceded by an [[Occupation of Puerto Bolívar|aerial assault]] carried out by [[Paratrooper Company|Peruvian paratroopers]] on the port of [[Puerto Bolívar]], near [[Machala]], which was also occupied.

An agreement known as the ''Talara Accord'' ({{langx|es|Acuerdo de Talara}}) was signed on October 2, under which a demilitarized zone was established in Ecuador under Ecuadorian administration, and the province of El Oro was [[Peruvian occupation of Ecuador|occupied by Peru]] until the signing of the [[Rio Protocol]] in January 1942, with Peruvian troops withdrawing the following month. The treaty signed in Rio established a border commission in charge of delimiting the border between Ecuador and Peru, which was accomplished with the exception of a small part of the border that eventually continued the dispute. As a result of the delimitation of the border in the coast, integration between both countries continued to grow during the following years.

Peru remained neutral during [[World War II]], continuing its relations with countries in both factions, but nevertheless favoring the Allied faction.<ref name=Novak>{{Cite book |title=Las relaciones entre el Perú y Alemania (1828-2012) |last=Novak |first=Fabián |publisher=[[Pontifical Catholic University of Peru|PUCP]] |year=2012 |isbn=978-9972-42-634-6 |edition=1st |language=es |url=http://repositorio.pucp.edu.pe/index/handle/123456789/39909 |access-date=2022-10-21 |archive-date=2022-10-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221021172807/https://repositorio.pucp.edu.pe/index/handle/123456789/39909 |url-status=dead }}</ref> On 12 February 1945,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Peru/Formation-of-the-Aprista-movement|title = Peru - Formation of the Aprista movement &#124; Britannica}}</ref><ref>Masterson, Daniel M. and Jorge Ortiz Sotelo in Thomas M. Leonard and John F. Bratzel. eds. Latin America During World War II (Rowman & Littlefield: 2007), 226p.</ref> Peru was [[Allies of World War II#After the Declaration by United Nations|the fourth South American nation]] to join the [[Allies of World War II|Allied forces]] against the [[Axis Powers|Axis]] – following [[Brazilian Expeditionary Force#Overview|Brazil]] on 22 August 1942, [[Bolivia]] on 7 April 1943 and [[Colombia]] on 26 November 1943. As part of the [[Japanese-American internment]] program, the country rounded up around 2,000 of its Japanese immigrant population and shipped them to the United States, where they were placed in concentration camps.<ref name=Novak/><ref>[[Agence France-Presse]]/[[Jiji Press]], "Peru sorry for World War II internments", ''[[Japan Times]]'', 16 June 2011, p. 2.</ref> Despite the late entry of the country into the conflict, some volunteers had already left for Europe beforehand. One example was [[Jorge Sanjinez Lenz]], who enlisted in the [[Belgian government in exile|Belgian]] [[Independent Belgian Brigade|Piron Brigade]], and fought in the [[Battle of Normandy]].

====Bustamante administration====
Following the Allied victory in [[World War II]] by 2 September 1945, [[Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre]] (founder of the APRA), together with [[José Carlos Mariátegui]] (leader of the [[Peruvian Communist Party]]), were two major forces in Peruvian politics.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Protagonistas - Peru |url=http://servicios.abc.gov.ar/lainstitucion/protagonistas/haya.html |access-date=2022-07-14 |website=servicios.abc.gov.ar}}</ref> Ideologically opposed, they both managed to create the first political parties that tackled the social and economic problems of the country. Although Mariátegui died at a young age,<ref>{{Cite web |title=La muerte de José Carlos Mariátegui contada por Eudocio Ravines |url=https://rocolaperuana.lamula.pe/2020/04/16/la-muerte-de-jose-carlos-mariategui-contada-por-eudocio-ravines/luchitopastor/ |access-date=2022-07-14 |website=rocolaperuana.lamula.pe |language=es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=afairlie |date=2021-04-16 |title=Aniversario de la muerte de José Carlos Mariategui |url=https://alanfairliereinoso.pe/?p=8438 |access-date=2022-07-14 |website=Alan Fairlie Reinoso |language=es-PE}}</ref> President [[José Bustamante y Rivero|Bustamante y Rivero]] hoped to create a more democratic government by limiting the power of the military and the oligarchy. Elected with the cooperation of the APRA, conflict soon arose between the President and Haya de la Torre.<ref>{{Cite web |title=▷ Gobierno de José Luis Bustamante y Rivero (1945 - 1948) {{!}} Carpetapedagogica.com |url=https://carpetapedagogica.com/gobiernodejoseluisbustamanteyrivero |access-date=2022-07-14 |website=carpetapedagogica.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Perú |first=Historia del |date=2014-09-20 |title=Gobierno de Bustamante y Rivero |url=https://historiaperuana.pe/periodo-independiente/republica/gobierno-bustamante-y-rivero |access-date=2022-07-14 |website=Historia del Perú |language=es}}</ref> Without the support of the APRA party, Bustamante y Rivero found his presidency severely limited. The President disbanded his ''Aprista'' cabinet and replaced it with a mostly military one. In 1948, Minister [[Manuel A. Odría]] and other [[right-wing]] elements of the Cabinet urged Bustamante y Rivero to ban the APRA, but when the President refused, Odría resigned his post.

===The ''Ochenio'' (1948–1956)===
{{main|History of Peru (1948–1956)}}
In a military coup on 27 October, Gen. Manuel A. Odría became the new president.<ref>{{Cite web |title=El golpe de estado de Odría y la nueva exclusión de los partidos |url=http://blog.pucp.edu.pe/blog/fernandotuesta/1998/06/23/el-golpe-de-estado-de-odria-y-la-nueva-exclusion-de-los-partidos/ |access-date=2022-07-17 |language=es-ES}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=▷ Ochenio de Manuel Odría (1948 - 1956) - Carpetapedagogica.com |url=https://carpetapedagogica.com/ocheniodemanuelodria |access-date=2022-07-17 |website=carpetapedagogica.com}}</ref> Odría's presidency was known as the ''Ochenio''. He cracked down on APRA members and sympathizers, momentarily pleasing the oligarchy and all others on the right, but followed a [[Populism|populist]] course that won him great favor with the poor and lower classes. A thriving economy allowed him to indulge in expensive but crowd-pleasing social policies. At the same time, however, [[civil rights]] were severely restricted and [[political corruption|corruption]] was rampant throughout his régime.

It was feared that his dictatorship would run indefinitely, so it came as a surprise when Odría allowed new elections. During this time, [[Fernando Belaúnde Terry]] started his political career, and led the slate submitted by the National Front of Democratic Youth.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fernando Belaunde Terry La Gesta de La Merced |url=https://fernandobelaundeterry.com.pe/biografia/la-gesta-de-la-merced |access-date=2022-07-17 |website=fernandobelaundeterry.com.pe}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Belaunde, el hombre de la lampa |url=https://elperuano.pe/noticia/96869-belaunde-el-hombre-de-la-lampa |access-date=2022-07-17 |website=elperuano.pe |language=es}}</ref> After the National Election Board refused to accept his candidacy, he led a massive protest, and the striking image of Belaúnde walking with the flag was featured by news magazine ''[[Caretas]]'' the following day, in an article entitled "Así Nacen Los Lideres" ("Thus Are Leaders Born"). Belaúnde's 1956 candidacy was ultimately unsuccessful, as the dictatorship-favored right-wing candidacy of [[Manuel Prado Ugarteche]] took first place.

===Moderate civil reform (1956–1968)===
{{main|History of Peru (1956–1968)}}
Belaúnde ran for president once again in the national elections of 1962; this time with his own party, [[Popular Action (Peru)|Acción Popular]] (Popular Action). The results were very tight; he ended in second place, following Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre (APRA), by less than 14,000 votes. Since none of the candidates managed to get the constitutionally established minimum of one third of the vote required to win outright, selection of the President should have fallen to Congress; the long-held antagonistic relationship between the military and APRA prompted Haya de la Torre to make a deal with former dictator Odria, who had come in third, which would have resulted in Odria taking the Presidency in a coalition government.

However, widespread allegations of fraud prompted the Peruvian military to depose Prado and install a military ''junta'', led by [[Ricardo Pérez Godoy|Ricardo Perez Godoy]]. Godoy ran a short transitional government and held [[1963 Peruvian general election|new elections]] in 1963, which were won by Belaúnde by a more comfortable but still narrow five percent margin. Belaúnde [[First presidency of Fernando Belaúnde|took office]] on July 28 of the same year. His presidency would continue until its interruption in 1968.

Throughout Latin America in the 1960s, [[communist]] movements inspired by the [[Cuban Revolution]] sought to win power through [[guerrilla warfare]]. The [[Revolutionary Left Movement (Peru)|Revolutionary Left Movement]], or MIR, launched an [[insurrection]] that had been crushed by 1965, but Peru's internal strife would only accelerate until its climax in the 1990s.

===Radical military reform (1968–1980)===
{{main|Revolutionary Government of the Armed Forces of Peru}}
After a crisis involving the missing last page of a document signed between the Peruvian government and the [[International Petroleum Company]], General [[Juan Velasco Alvarado]] overthrew elected President [[Fernando Belaúnde Terry]] in a [[1968 Peruvian coup d'état|successful coup d'état]] in 1968. As part of what has been called the "first phase" of the [[Revolutionary Government of the Armed Forces of Peru|military government]]'s nationalist program, Velasco undertook an extensive [[Agrarian bonds in Peru|agrarian reform]] program and nationalized the fish meal industry, some petroleum companies, and several banks and mining firms. The Velasco administration saw its worst moment during the ''[[Limazo]]'', a period of civil unrest and rioting in Lima after a strike carried out by members of the [[Civil Guard (Peru)|Civil Guard]] and the [[Republican Guard (Peru)|Republican Guard]].

In 1971, the country celebrated its [[Sesquicentennial of the Independence of Peru|150th anniversary]] since its independence. As a result, the Revolutionary Government established the ''National Commission for the Sesquicentennial of the Independence of Peru'' ({{langx|es|Comisión Nacional del Sesquicentenario de la Independencia del Perú (CNSIP)}}) to manage the celebrations.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=El sesquicentenario de la independencia del Perú |journal=Argumentos |url=http://argumentos-historico.iep.org.pe/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/Loayza-A.-2019-El-sesquicentenario-de-la-independencia-del-Perú.pdf |last=Loayza Pérez |first=Alex |date=2019-09-01 |issue=2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://sesquicentenario.bnp.gob.pe/#/ |title=Sesquicentenario de la Independencia del Perú |website=[[National Library of Peru]] |access-date=2023-01-22 |archive-date=2022-12-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221219030849/https://sesquicentenario.bnp.gob.pe/#/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

General [[Francisco Morales Bermúdez]] [[Tacnazo|overthrew]] Velasco in 1975,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-07-17 |title=Francisco Morales Bermúdez: del "Tacnazo" en 1975 a la transición hacia la democracia en 1980 - Caretas Blanco y Negro |url=https://caretas.pe/blanco-y-negro/francisco-morales-bermudez-del-tacnazo-en-1975-a-la-transicion-hacia-la-democracia-en-1980/ |access-date=2022-07-18 |website=Caretas |language=es |archive-date=2022-07-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220717033009/https://caretas.pe/blanco-y-negro/francisco-morales-bermudez-del-tacnazo-en-1975-a-la-transicion-hacia-la-democracia-en-1980/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Alzada |first=Mano |date=2018-07-23 |title=Dictador Morales Bermúdez, condenado por el Plan Cóndor, presentó libro en la FIL Lima 2018 |url=https://manoalzada.pe/cultura/dictador-morales-bermudez-condenado-por-el-plan-condor-presento-libro-en-la-fil-lima-2018 |access-date=2022-07-18 |website=Mano Alzada |language=es-PE}}</ref> citing Velasco's economic mismanagement and deteriorating health.<ref>{{Cite news |last=EFE |date=1976-07-28 |title=Velasco Alvarado, ex presidente del Perú, gravemente enfermo |language=es |work=El País |url=https://elpais.com/diario/1976/07/29/internacional/207439202_850215.html |access-date=2022-07-18 |issn=1134-6582}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Pigna |first=Felipe |date=2018-07-31 |title=Juan Velasco Alvarado y la revolución peruana de 1968 |url=https://www.elhistoriador.com.ar/juan-velasco-alvarado-y-la-revolucion-peruana-de-1968/ |access-date=2022-07-18 |website=El Historiador |language=es}}</ref> Morales Bermúdez moved the revolution into a more conservative "second phase", tempering the radical measures of the first phase and beginning the task of restoring the country's economy. A constitutional assembly was created in 1979, which was led by [[Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre]]. Morales Bermúdez presided over the return to civilian government in accordance with a new constitution drawn up in 1979, calling a [[1980 Peruvian general election|general election]] in 1980.<ref>{{Cite web |last=GrupoRPP |date=2011-08-02 |title=La historia de la Constitución de 1979 contada por Morales Bermúdez |url=https://rpp.pe/politica/actualidad/la-historia-de-la-constitucion-de-1979-contada-por-morales-bermudez-noticia-390272 |access-date=2022-07-18 |website=RPP |language=es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=CONSTITUCION POLITICA DEL PERU 1979 |url=https://www4.congreso.gob.pe/comisiones/1999/simplificacion/const/1979.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030304034357/http://www.congreso.gob.pe/comisiones/1999/simplificacion/const/1979.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=March 4, 2003 |access-date=2022-07-18 |website=www4.congreso.gob.pe }}</ref>

===Terrorism and the ''Fujimorato'' (1980–2000)===
{{main|History of Peru (1980–2000)|Peruvian conflict}}
During the 1980s, cultivation of illicit coca was established in large areas on the eastern Andean slope. Rural insurgent movements, like the [[Shining Path]] (''Sendero Luminoso'', SL) and the [[Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement]] (MRTA) increased and derived significant financial support from alliances with the narcotics traffickers, leading to the [[Internal conflict in Peru]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Qué es el maoísmo, la ideología en la que se inspiró Abimael Guzmán y por la que desencadenó en Perú una guerra sangrienta |language=es |work=BBC News Mundo |url=https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-america-latina-58182449 |access-date=2022-07-18}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sierra |first=Jerónimo Ríos |date=2018-12-20 |title=Sendero Luminoso: Una apología de la violencia |url=https://revistadeculturadepaz.com/index.php/culturapaz/article/view/22 |journal=Revista de Cultura de paz |language=es |volume=2 |pages=277–294 |issn=2631-2700}}</ref>

In the May 1980 elections, President [[Fernando Belaúnde Terry]] was returned to office by a strong plurality.<ref>{{Cite news |title=El belaundismo y el apoyo institucional a la gestión popular (1980-1985) |language=es |work=Desco |url=http://www.desco.org.pe/el-belaundismo-y-el-apoyo-institucional-a-la-gestion-popular-1980-1985 |access-date=2022-07-18}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=PERÚ |first=NOTICIAS EL COMERCIO |date=2021-07-23 |title=Vuelve la democracia: presidente Belaunde asumió mando ayer en imponente ceremonia |url=https://elcomercio.pe/bicentenario/1980-l-vuelve-la-democracia-presidente-belaunde-asumio-mando-ayer-en-imponente-ceremonia-l-bicentenario-noticia/ |access-date=2022-07-18 |newspaper=El Comercio |language=es}}</ref> One of his first actions as president was the return of several newspapers to their respective owners.<ref>{{Cite news |last=PERÚ |first=NOTICIAS EL COMERCIO |date=2014-11-11 |title=Así Ocurrió: En 1980 se firma la Ley que devuelve los diarios {{!}} POLITICA |url=https://elcomercio.pe/politica/gobierno/ocurrio-1980-firma-ley-devuelve-diarios-299438-noticia/ |access-date=2022-07-18 |newspaper=El Comercio |language=es}}</ref> In this way, [[freedom of speech]] once again played an important part in Peruvian politics. Gradually, he also attempted to undo some of the most radical effects of the ''Agrarian Reform'' initiated by Velasco and reversed the independent stance that the military government of Velasco had with the United States.

Belaúnde's second term was also marked by the unconditional support for [[Argentina|Argentine]] forces during the [[Falklands War]] with the United Kingdom in 1982.<ref>{{Cite news |last=PERÚ |first=NOTICIAS EL COMERCIO |date=2021-10-15 |title=Argentina vs Perú: La historia de cómo se gestó el apoyo del Perú a Argentina en la Guerra de las Malvinas {{!}} MUNDO |url=https://elcomercio.pe/mundo/latinoamerica/argentina-vs-peru-la-historia-de-como-se-gesto-el-apoyo-del-peru-a-argentina-en-la-guerra-de-las-malvinas-noticia/ |access-date=2022-07-21 |newspaper=El Comercio |language=es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=La historia detrás de la histórica bandera de Perú en apoyo a Argentina en la Guerra de Malvinas - TyC Sports |url=https://www.tycsports.com/interes-general/-la-historia-detras-de-la-historica-bandera-de-peru-en-apoyo-a-argentina-en-la-guerra-de-malvinas-id423996.html |access-date=2022-07-21 |website=tycsports.com|date=2 April 2022 }}</ref> Belaúnde declared that "Peru was ready to support Argentina with all the resources it needed". This included a number of fighter planes and possibly personnel from the [[Peruvian Air Force]], as well as ships, and medical teams. Belaunde's government proposed a peace settlement between the two countries, but it was rejected by both sides, as both claimed undiluted sovereignty of the territory. In response to [[Chile]]'s support of the UK, Belaúnde called for Latin American unity.

The nagging economic problems left over from the previous military government persisted, worsened by an occurrence of the "[[El Niño]]" weather phenomenon in 1982–83, which caused widespread flooding in some parts of the country, severe droughts in others, and decimated the schools of ocean fish that are one of the country's major resources. After a promising beginning, Belaúnde's popularity eroded under the stress of inflation, economic hardship, and terrorism.

In 1985, the [[American Popular Revolutionary Alliance]] (APRA) won the presidential election, bringing [[Alan García]] to office.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2008-09-01 |title=El giro del APRA y de Alan García {{!}} Nueva Sociedad |url=https://nuso.org/articulo/el-giro-del-apra-y-de-alan-garcia/ |access-date=2022-07-21 |website=Nueva Sociedad {{!}} Democracia y política en América Latina}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Alan García, el presidente de la hiperinflación y la reducción de la pobreza en Perú que se suicidó en medio de un escándalo de corrupción |language=es |work=BBC News Mundo |url=https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-america-latina-47965454 |access-date=2022-07-21}}</ref> The transfer of the presidency from Belaúnde to García on 28 July 1985 was Peru's first exchange of power from one democratically elected leader to another in 40 years.

With a parliamentary majority for the first time in APRA's history, Alan García started [[First presidency of Alan García|his administration]] with hopes for a better future. However, economic mismanagement led to [[hyperinflation]] from 1988 to 1990. García's term in office was marked by bouts of hyperinflation, which reached 7,649% in 1990 and had a cumulative total of 2,200,200% between July 1985 and July 1990, thereby profoundly destabilizing the Peruvian economy.

Owing to such [[chronic inflation]], the Peruvian currency, the [[Peruvian sol (1863–1985)|sol]], was replaced by the ''[[Inti (currency)|Inti]]'' in mid-1985,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Infomercado |date=2021-02-01 |title=Los 36 años del Inti: la moneda de la hiperinflación en el gobierno de Alan García |url=https://infomercado.pe/los-36-anos-del-inti-la-moneda-de-la-hiperinflacion-en-el-gobierno-de-alan-garcia/ |access-date=2022-07-23 |website=Infomercado |language=es-pe}}</ref> which itself was replaced by the [[Peruvian nuevo sol|nuevo sol]] ("new sun") in July 1991,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Murillo |first=Ana |date=1990-11-21 |title=Perú prepara el cambio del inti por el 'nuevo sol' |language=es |work=El País |url=https://elpais.com/diario/1990/11/22/economia/659228412_850215.html |access-date=2022-07-23 |issn=1134-6582}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=GESTIÓN |first=NOTICIAS |date=2015-04-15 |title=Del Inti al Nuevo sol: la evolución de una moneda {{!}} ECONOMIA |url=https://gestion.pe/economia/inti-nuevo-sol-evolucion-moneda-152739-noticia/ |access-date=2022-07-23 |website=Gestión |language=es}}</ref> at which time the new ''sol'' had a cumulative value of one billion old soles. During his administration, the ''per capita'' annual income of Peruvians fell to $720 (below the level of 1960) and Peru's [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]] dropped 20%. By the end of his term, national reserves were a negative $900 million.

The economic turbulence of the time exacerbated social tensions in Peru and partly contributed to the rise of the violent rebel movement [[Shining Path]]. The García administration unsuccessfully sought a military solution to the growing terrorism, committing human rights violations which are still under investigation.

In June 1989, demonstrations for free education were severely repressed by the army: 18 people were killed according to official figures, but non-governmental estimates suggest several dozen deaths. This event led to a radicalization of political protests in the countryside and ultimately led to the outbreak of the Shining Path's armed and terrorist actions.<ref>Luis Rossell, Rupay: historias gráficas de la violencia en el Perú, 1980–1984, 2008</ref><ref>[[Julia Lovell]], ''Maoism: A Global History'' (2019) pp 306–346.</ref>

==== Fujimori's presidency and the Fujishock (1990–2000) ====
Concerned about the economy, the increasing terrorist threat from [[Shining Path|Sendero Luminoso]] and MRTA, and allegations of official corruption, voters chose a relatively unknown mathematician-turned-politician, [[Alberto Fujimori]], as president in 1990. The first round of the election was won by well-known writer [[Mario Vargas Llosa]], a conservative candidate who went on to receive the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2010, but Fujimori defeated him in the second round. Fujimori implemented drastic measures that caused inflation to drop from 7,650% in 1990 to 139% in 1991. The currency was devalued by 200%, prices were rising sharply (especially gasoline, whose price is multiplied by 30), hundreds of public companies were privatized and 300,000 jobs were being lost.  The majority of the population had not benefited from the years of strong growth, which ultimately only widened the gap between rich and poor. The poverty rate remained at around 50%.{{NoteTag|The currency devalued by 200%, prices rose sharply (especially gasoline, whose price was multiplied by 30), hundreds of public companies were privatized and 300,000 jobs were lost.  However, the social balance sheet remains much less positive. The majority of the population has not benefited from the years of strong growth, which will ultimately only widen the gap between rich and poor. The poverty rate remained at around 50%, a level comparable to Alan Garcia's completion rates.}}

Fujimori dissolved Congress in the [[1992 Peruvian self-coup d'état|self-coup of 5 April 1992]],<ref>{{Cite news |last=PERÚ |first=NOTICIAS EL COMERCIO |date=2021-04-06 |title=¿Qué sucedió el 5 de abril de 1992 en el Perú? {{!}} Autogolpe {{!}} Alberto Fujimori {{!}} Constitución de 1993 {{!}} revtli {{!}} RESPUESTAS |url=https://elcomercio.pe/respuestas/que-sucedio-el-5-de-abril-de-1992-en-el-peru-autogolpe-alberto-fujimori-constitucion-de-1993-revtli-noticia/ |access-date=2022-07-23 |newspaper=El Comercio |language=es}}</ref> in order to have total control of the government of Peru.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Delgado |first=Sara |title=5 de abril de 1992: el autogolpe de Estado en Perú consolida el poder de Alberto Fujimori |url=https://elordenmundial.com/hoy-en-la-historia/5-abril/5-de-abril-de-1992-el-autogolpe-de-estado-en-peru-consolida-el-poder-de-alberto-fujimori/ |access-date=2022-07-23 |website=El Orden Mundial - EOM |date=5 April 2022 |language=es |archive-date=2022-09-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220930054338/https://elordenmundial.com/hoy-en-la-historia/5-abril/5-de-abril-de-1992-el-autogolpe-de-estado-en-peru-consolida-el-poder-de-alberto-fujimori/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> He then eliminated the constitution; called new congressional elections; and implemented substantial economic reform, including privatization of numerous state-owned companies, creation of an investment-friendly climate, and sound management of the economy.

Fujimori's administration was dogged by several insurgent groups, most notably Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path), which carried on a terrorist campaign in the countryside throughout the 1980s and 1990s. He cracked down on the insurgents and was successful in largely quelling them by the late 1990s, but the fight was marred by atrocities committed by both the Peruvian security forces and the insurgents: the [[Barrios Altos massacre]] and [[La Cantuta massacre]] by government paramilitary groups,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jimenez |first=Amaranta Zermeno |date=2022-05-31 |title=Perú retoma la búsqueda de restos de víctimas de una masacre de 1992 |url=https://es.euronews.com/2022/05/31/la-fiscalia-de-peru-retoma-la-busqueda-de-las-victimas-de-la-masacre-de-la-cantuta-de-1992 |access-date=2022-07-26 |website=euronews |language=es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-05 |title=¿Qué ocurrió en Barrios Altos y La Cantuta?: A propósito de la audiencia ante la Corte IDH* |url=https://idehpucp.pucp.edu.pe/analisis1/ocurrio-barrios-altos-la-cantuta-proposito-la-audiencia-ante-la-corte-idh/ |access-date=2022-07-26 |website=IDEHPUCP |language=es}}</ref> and the bombings of [[Tarata bombing|Tarata]] and [[Frecuencia Latina bombing|Frecuencia Latina]] by [[Shining Path]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Caso Tarata: Sentencia marcará un hito histórico en la lucha contra el terrorismo |url=https://www.gob.pe/institucion/mininter/noticias/18801-caso-tarata-sentencia-marcara-un-hito-historico-en-la-lucha-contra-el-terrorismo |access-date=2022-07-26 |website=gob.pe |language=es-pe}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Gorriti |first=Gustavo |date=1992-06-05 |title=Tres muertos en un atentado en Lima contra la sede de un canal de televisión |language=es |work=El País |url=https://elpais.com/diario/1992/06/06/internacional/707781607_850215.html |access-date=2022-07-26 |issn=1134-6582}}</ref> Those examples subsequently came to be seen as symbols of the human rights violations committed during the last years of violence. With the capture of [[Abimael Guzmán]] (known as ''President Gonzalo'' to the Shining Path) in September 1992,<ref>{{Cite web |title=12 de setiembre: Captura de Abimael Guzmán, cabecilla del grupo terrorista Sendero Luminoso |url=https://www.gob.pe/institucion/ccffaa/noticias/521994-12-de-setiembre-captura-de-abimael-guzman-cabecilla-del-grupo-terrorista-sendero-luminoso |access-date=2022-07-26 |website=gob.pe |language=es-pe}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Fowks |first=Jacqueline |date=2021-09-11 |title=Muere Abimael Guzmán, líder de Sendero Luminoso condenado por participar en la muerte de 30.000 personas |url=https://elpais.com/internacional/2021-09-11/muere-abimael-guzman-lider-de-sendero-luminoso.html |access-date=2022-07-26 |website=El País |language=es}}</ref> the Shining Path received a severe blow which practically destroyed the organization.

In December 1996, a group of insurgents belonging to the [[Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement|MRTA]] [[Japanese embassy hostage crisis|took over the Japanese embassy in Lima]], taking 72 people hostage.<ref>{{Cite news |last=PERÚ |first=NOTICIAS EL COMERCIO |date=2015-12-17 |title=Así Ocurrió: En 1996 terroristas toman la embajada del Japón {{!}} LIMA |url=https://elcomercio.pe/lima/ocurrio-1996-terroristas-toman-embajada-japon-314735-noticia/ |access-date=2022-07-31 |newspaper=El Comercio |language=es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-07-16 |title=Secuestro en la Embajada de Japón en Perú en 1996 |url=https://skdesu.com/es/secuestro-en-la-embajada-japon-en-peru-1996/ |access-date=2022-07-31 |language=es-ES}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Lima. Hoy 17 de Diciembre de 1996 terroristas peruanos del MRTA toman la Embajada de Japón en Lima — Español |url=https://www.efemeridespedrobeltran.com/es/eventos/diciembre-1/lima.-hoy-17-de-diciembre-de-1996-terroristas-peruanos-del-mrta-toman-la-embajada-de-japon-en-lima |access-date=2022-07-31 |website=efemeridespedrobeltran.com |archive-date=2022-07-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220731192530/https://www.efemeridespedrobeltran.com/es/eventos/diciembre-1/lima.-hoy-17-de-diciembre-de-1996-terroristas-peruanos-del-mrta-toman-la-embajada-de-japon-en-lima |url-status=dead }}</ref> Military commandos stormed the embassy compound in April 1997, which resulted in the death of all 15 hostage takers, one hostage, and 2 commandos.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-04-21 |title=126 días asalto a la embajada nipona en Lima - 40 Aniversario |url=https://aniversario.elpais.com/asalto-embajada-japon/ |access-date=2022-07-31 |website=Aniversario EL PAÍS |language=es-ES}}</ref> It later emerged, however, that Fujimori's security chief [[Vladimiro Montesinos]] may have ordered the killing of at least eight of the rebels after they surrendered.

Fujimori's constitutionally questionable decision to seek a third term and subsequent tainted victory in June 2000 brought political and economic turmoil, including the [[Four Quarters March]] of July 26–28, which left several dead and injured, and destroyed the building of the [[Bank of the Nation (Peru)|''Banco de la Nación'']] (Bank of the Nation).<ref>{{Cite news |last=EFE |date=1999-12-28 |title=Fujimori se presenta para un tercer mandato, pese a las quejas de la oposición |language=es |work=El País |url=https://elpais.com/diario/1999/12/29/internacional/946422008_850215.html |access-date=2022-07-31 |issn=1134-6582}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Stein reconoce que hubo fraude en la reelección de Fujimori |url=https://www.elmundo.es/elmundo/2001/04/07/internacional/986663916.html |access-date=2022-07-31 |website=elmundo.es}}</ref> A bribery scandal that broke just weeks after he took office in July forced Fujimori to call new elections in which he would not run.<ref>{{Cite news |last=PERÚ |first=NOTICIAS EL COMERCIO |date=2019-09-16 |title=Alberto Fujimori: hace 19 años anunció nuevas elecciones tras vladivideo {{!}} POLITICA |url=https://elcomercio.pe/politica/alberto-fujimori-19-anos-convoca-nuevas-elecciones-desactivacion-noticia-ecpm-676523-noticia/ |access-date=2022-07-31 |newspaper=El Comercio |language=es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Puertas |first=Laura |date=2000-09-18 |title=Fujimori se retira y convoca elecciones en Perú |language=es |work=El País |url=https://elpais.com/diario/2000/09/18/internacional/969228001_850215.html |access-date=2022-07-31 |issn=1134-6582}}</ref> The scandal involved Vladimiro Montesinos, who was shown in a video broadcast on TV bribing a politician to change sides. Montesinos subsequently emerged as the center of a vast web of illegal activities, including embezzlement, graft, drug trafficking, as well as human rights violations committed during the war against Sendero Luminoso.

=== Business republic (2000–2016)===
In November 2000, Fujimori resigned from office and went to Japan in self-imposed exile, avoiding prosecution for human rights violations and corruption charges by the new Peruvian authorities.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Puertas |first=Laura |date=2000-11-20 |title=Un misterioso viaje a Asia sin fecha de retorno |language=es |work=El País |url=https://elpais.com/diario/2000/11/20/internacional/974674801_850215.html |access-date=2022-08-07 |issn=1134-6582}}</ref> His main intelligence chief, [[Vladimiro Montesinos]], fled Peru shortly afterwards. Authorities in Venezuela arrested him in Caracas in June 2001 and turned him over to Peruvian authorities; he is now imprisoned and charged with acts of corruption and human rights violations committed during Fujimori's administration.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Cómo fue la captura en Venezuela de Vladimiro Montesinos, el polémico exasesor de Alberto Fujimori, hace 20 años |language=es |work=BBC News Mundo |url=https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-america-latina-57171785 |access-date=2022-08-07}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2001-06-23 |title=El ex asesor de Fujimori Vladimiro Montesinos, detenido en Venezuela |language=es |work=El País |url=https://elpais.com/internacional/2001/06/24/actualidad/993333605_850215.html |access-date=2022-08-07 |issn=1134-6582}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Welle (www.dw.com) |first=Deutsche |title=Condena de 22 años contra Vladimiro Montesinos por desaparición forzosa {{!}} DW {{!}} 27.09.2016 |url=https://www.dw.com/es/condena-de-22-a%C3%B1os-contra-vladimiro-montesinos-por-desaparici%C3%B3n-forzosa/a-35909514 |access-date=2022-08-07 |website=DW.COM |language=es-ES}}</ref>

A caretaker government presided over by [[Valentín Paniagua Corazao|Valentín Paniagua]] took on the responsibility of conducting new presidential and congressional elections.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-04-19 |title=Valentín Paniagua, el último presidente de transición |url=https://www.tvperu.gob.pe/noticias/politica/valentin-paniagua-el-ultimo-presidente-de-transicion |access-date=2022-08-07 |website=TVPerú |language=es}}</ref> The [[2001 Peruvian general election|elections]] were held in April 2001; observers considered them to be free and fair. [[Alejandro Toledo]] (who led the opposition against Fujimori) defeated former President [[Alan García]].<ref>{{cite news |title=CNN.com - Toledo wins Peru presidential vote - June 3, 2001 |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2001/WORLD/americas/06/03/peru.election.02/ |work=CNN |access-date=August 10, 2022 |archive-date=August 10, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220810214803/http://edition.cnn.com/2001/WORLD/americas/06/03/peru.election.02/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The newly elected government took office on 28 July 2001. The Toledo Administration managed to restore some degree of democracy to Peru following the authoritarianism and corruption that plagued both the Fujimori and García governments. Innocents wrongfully tried by military courts during the war against terrorism (1980–2000) were allowed to receive new trials in civilian courts.

On 28 August 2003, the [[Truth and Reconciliation Commission (Peru)|Truth and Reconciliation Commission]] (CVR), which had been charged with studying the roots of the violence of the 1980–2000 period, presented its formal report to the President.

President Toledo was forced to make a number of cabinet changes, mostly in response to personal scandals. Toledo's governing coalition had a minority of seats in Congress and had to negotiate on an ''ad hoc'' basis with other parties to form majorities on legislative proposals. Toledo's popularity in the polls suffered throughout the last years of his regime, due in part to family scandals and in part to dissatisfaction among workers with their share of benefits from Peru's macroeconomic success. After strikes by teachers and agricultural producers led to nationwide road blockages in May 2003, Toledo declared a state of emergency that suspended some civil liberties and gave the military power to enforce order in 12 regions. The state of emergency was later reduced to only the few areas where the Shining Path was operating.

On 28 July 2006, former president Alan García [[Second presidency of Alan García|was reelected]] as the President of Peru. He won the [[2006 Peruvian election|2006 elections]] after winning in a runoff against [[Ollanta Humala]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Garcia wins to become Peru president |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2006/6/5/garcia-wins-to-become-peru-president |work=www.aljazeera.com |language=en}}</ref> In May 2008, President García was a signatory to the [[UNASUR Constitutive Treaty]] of the [[Union of South American Nations]] (USAN). Peru has ratified the treaty.

On 5 June 2011, Ollanta Humala was [[Presidency of Ollanta Humala|elected president]] in a run-off against [[Keiko Fujimori]], the daughter of Alberto Fujimori and former [[First Lady]] of Peru, in the [[2011 Peruvian general election|2011 elections]], making him the first leftist president of Peru since [[Juan Velasco Alvarado]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Left-wing Humala wins presidential election |url=https://www.france24.com/en/20110606-peru-elections-ollanta-humala-leftist-president-winner-polls-lima-fujimori |work=France 24 |date=6 June 2011 |language=en}}</ref> In December 2011, a state of emergency was declared following popular opposition to some major mining project and environmental concerns.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.andina.com.pe/Ingles/Noticia.aspx?id=AhG0n1njO4I=|title=Peru government declares state of emergency in four Cajamarca provinces|access-date=2011-12-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120616191103/http://www.andina.com.pe/Ingles/Noticia.aspx?id=AhG0n1njO4I=|archive-date=2012-06-16|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Political crisis (2016–present)===
{{Main article|Peruvian political crisis (2016–present)}}
[[Pedro Pablo Kuczynski]] was [[Presidency of Pedro Pablo Kuczynski|elected president]] in the [[2016 Peruvian general election|general election]] in July 2016. His parents were Polish Jews  fleeing from [[Nazism]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Peru elections: Keiko Fujimori concedes to Kuczynski |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-36505027 |work=BBC News |date=10 June 2016}}</ref> Kuczynski was committed to integrating and acknowledging Peru's indigenous populations, with state-run TV beginning daily news broadcasts in [[Quechuan languages|Quechua]] and [[Aymara language|Aymara]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/news/americas/21727092-president-european-roots-gives-quechua-and-aymara-boost-perus-indigenous-language-push|title=Peru's indigenous-language push|newspaper=[[The Economist]]}}</ref> Kuczynski was widely criticized on [[Pardon of Alberto Fujimori|pardoning]] former President [[Alberto Fujimori]], going against his campaign promises against his rival, [[Keiko Fujimori]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Hungary elects Katalin Novak, first-ever female president |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/3/10/hungary-elects-katalin-novak-first-ever-woman-president |work=www.aljazeera.com |language=en}}</ref>
[[File:Protestas en Lima por golpe de estado parlamentario 20.jpg|right|thumb|Demonstration in Lima against [[Manuel Merino]], 12 November 2020]]
In March 2018, after a failure to impeach the president, Kuczynski faced yet again the threat of impeachment on the basis of corruption in [[Electoral fraud|vote buying]] and [[bribery]] with the [[Odebrecht|Odebrecht corporation]]. On 23 March 2018, Kucyznski was forced to resign from the [[President of Peru|presidency]], and has not been heard from since. His successor was his first [[vice president]], engineer [[Martín Vizcarra]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2018/03/23/596578223/martin-vizcarra-sworn-in-as-perus-new-president|title=Martin Vizcarra Sworn in as Peru's New President|newspaper=NPR|date=23 March 2018|last1=Romo|first1=Vanessa}}</ref> Vizcarra has announced publicly that he has no plans in seeking for re-election amidst the [[2017–2021 Peruvian political crisis|political crisis]] and instability. However, the Congress impeached President Martin Vizcarra in November 2020. His successor, interim president [[Manuel Merino]], resigned after being in office for only five days.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2020/11/15/americas/peru-interim-president-resigns-intl/index.html|title=Peru's interim president resigns after just five days|date=15 November 2020 }}</ref> Merino [[Presidency of Francisco Sagasti|was succeeded]] by interim president [[Francisco Sagasti]], the third head of state in under a week.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-54967831|title = Francisco Sagasti sworn in as interim Peruvian leader|work = BBC News|date = 18 November 2020}}</ref>

On 28 July 2021, coinciding with the [[Bicentennial of the Independence of Peru]], left-wing [[Pedro Castillo]] was [[Presidency of Pedro Castillo|sworn in]] as the new [[President of Peru]] after a narrow win against Keiko Fujimori in the 2022 [[2021 Peruvian general election|election]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dw.com/en/peru-pedro-castillo-sworn-in-as-president/a-58672989|title = Peru: Pedro Castillo sworn in as president &#124; DW &#124; 28.07.2021|website = [[Deutsche Welle]]}}</ref>

As a result of economic stagnation during the [[COVID-19 pandemic in Peru]], between ten and twenty percent of Peruvians fell below the poverty line in 2020, reversing a decade of poverty reduction in the country and resulting in a poverty rate of 30.1% that year.<ref name="Migus">{{Cite web |last=Migus |first=Romain |date=1 September 2021 |title=Can Pedro Castillo unite Peru? |url=https://mondediplo.com/2021/09/11peru |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831083423/https://mondediplo.com/2021/09/11peru |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=15 September 2021 |website=[[Le Monde diplomatique]] |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=7 July 2021 |title=Peru's middle-class shrank by almost half in 2020 |url=https://riotimesonline.com/brazil-news/mercosur/peru/perus-middle-class-shrinks-by-almost-half-in-2020/ |access-date=19 September 2021 |website=The Rio Times |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=4 April 2022 |title=Perú: bloqueos por séptimo día consecutivo debido al alza de los precios |url=https://www.france24.com/es/am%C3%A9rica-latina/20220404-peru-manifestaciones-alza-precios-castillo |access-date=5 April 2022 |website=[[France 24]]}}</ref> Following the global economic reverberations resulting from [[International sanctions during the Russo-Ukrainian War|Western-led sanctions against Russia]] due to the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine|Russian invasion of Ukraine]] beginning in February 2022, inflation in Peru rose sharply.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Perú aumenta salario mínimo tras protestas por alza de precios |url=https://es-us.finanzas.yahoo.com/noticias/per%C3%BA-aumenta-salario-m%C3%ADnimo-protestas-121906307.html |access-date=5 April 2022 |website=es-us.finanzas.yahoo.com |date=4 April 2022 |language=es-US}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Noriega |first=Carlos |date=4 April 2022 |title=Castillo ante un escenario de revuelta social {{!}} Dura protesta en Perú por la suba de los precios |url=https://www.pagina12.com.ar/413153-castillo-ante-un-escenario-de-revuelta-social |access-date=5 April 2022 |website=[[Pagina 12]]}}</ref> As a result, on 28 March 2022 [[March–April 2022 Peruvian protests|mass protests began]]. The government responded to the rioting by deploying the [[Peruvian Armed Forces|Armed Forces]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cervantes |first=Maria |date=4 April 2022 |title=Peru Deploys Army to Control Violent Protests Disrupting Exports |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-04-04/peru-deploys-army-to-control-violent-protests-disrupting-exports |access-date=4 April 2022 |website=[[Bloomberg.com|Bloomberg]]}}</ref> President Castillo declared a state of emergency and enforced a total curfew in Lima for the entire day of 5 April.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=4 April 2022 |title=Presidente Pedro Castillo anuncia inamovilidad social en Lima y Callao para este martes |url=https://rpp.pe/politica/gobierno/presidente-pedro-castillo-anuncia-inamovilidad-social-en-lima-y-callao-para-este-martes-noticia-1397528 |access-date=5 April 2022 |website=[[RPP (Peru)|RPP]] |language=es}}</ref> In November 2022, thousands of  opponents of the government marched through the capital's center to call for the removal of President Pedro Castillo.<ref>{{cite news |title=Thousands march in Peru calling for president's removal |url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20221106-thousands-march-in-peru-calling-for-president-s-removal |work=France 24 |date=6 November 2022 |language=en}}</ref>

After [[Pedro Castillo#Removal attempts|multiple attempts]] to remove Castillo were unsuccessful, Castillo [[2022 Peruvian self-coup d'état attempt|attempted a self-coup]] on 7 December 2022 and was subsequently impeached and removed from office. Castillo's vice president [[Dina Boluarte]] was sworn in as the new president later that day, becoming the country's [[Presidency of Dina Boluarte|first female president]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-12-07 |title=Peru's President Pedro Castillo replaced by Dina Boluarte after impeachment |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-63895505 |access-date=2022-12-08}}</ref> Following Castillo's removal, his supporters started [[December 2022 Peruvian protests|nationwide protests]] demanding his release and Boluarte's resignation. On 14 December 2022, Peru's new government declared a 30-day national state of emergency to stop violent demonstrations.<ref>{{cite news |title=Peru declares 30-day state of emergency amid protests at president's arrest |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/dec/14/peru-state-emergency-pedro-castillo-protests |work=the Guardian |date=14 December 2022 |language=en}}</ref>