Editing History of Croatia (section)

==Personal union with Hungary (1102–1527) and the Republic of Venice==
{{Main|Croatia in personal union with Hungary|Republic of Ragusa|Republic of Poljica|the Republic of Venice}}

=== Croatia under the Árpád dynasty ===
[[File:Vinodol.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|The [[Law code of Vinodol|Law Code of Vinodol]] from 1288, written in [[Glagolitic script]], is the earliest legal text written in the Croatian language. This code regulated relations between inhabitants of the town of [[Novi Vinodolski|Vinodol]] and their overlords, the [[Frankopan family|counts of Krk]].]]
One consequence of entering a personal union with Hungary under the Hungarian king was the introduction of a [[feudalism|feudal system]]. Later kings sought to restore some of their influence by giving certain privileges to the towns.<ref name="Povijest-saborovanja">{{cite web|url=http://www.sabor.hr/Default.aspx?sec=404 |title=Povijest saborovanja |trans-title=History of parliamentarism |language=hr |publisher=[[Sabor]] |access-date=18 October 2010 |archive-date=28 April 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120428013806/http://www.sabor.hr/Default.aspx?sec=404 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Somewhere between [[Second Crusade|Second]] and [[Third Crusade]], [[Knights Templar]]s and [[Knights Hospitaller|Hospitallers]]<ref>Dobronić, 126</ref> appeared in Croatian lands for the first time.<ref name=":13" /> According to historian Lelja Dobronić the purpose of their arrival appears to be to secure transport routes and protect travelers going from Europe towards the Middle East.<ref name=":13">{{Cite book |last=Dobronić |first=Lelja |title=Templari i Ivanovci u Hrvatskoj |publisher=Dom i svijet |year=2002 |location=Zagreb |pages=26–27 |language=Croatian}}</ref>

After proclamation of [[Fourth Crusade|Fourth crusade]] in 1202, the crusader army could not afford to pay the agreed amount of money to the Venetians who were supposed to provide the maritime transport to the Holy Land. Venetians in turn requested that crusaders compensate this difference by capturing town of [[Zadar|Zadar (Zara)]] which was then supposed to be handed over to Venice. The pope issued sharp warnings against this kind of attack and some crusaders refused to participate. When Venetian-crusader army arrived before Zadar, its citizens posted signs of cross on their town walls to demonstrate their catholic faith. Despite everything, in November 1202 crusader-Venetian army [[Siege of Zara|launched an attack on Zadar, captured it and then looted it]].<ref name=":8">Kužić, 31-35</ref> In response, pope [[Excommunication|excommunicated]] entire crusader army.<ref name=":8" /> [[Emeric, King of Hungary|Hungarian-Croatian king Emeric]] also provided no real help to town. He merely wrote a letter to pope [[Pope Innocent III|Innocent III]], where he asked him to make crusaders return Zadar to its legitimate ruler.<ref name=":8" />

In year 1217, the Hungarian king [[Andrew II of Hungary|Andrew II]] took the [[sign of the cross]] and vowed to go on the [[Fifth Crusade]]. After assembling his army king marched by so-called ''"via exercitualis"'' (English: the military road) from Hungary proper southwards to [[Koprivnica]] and further towards: [[Križevci]], [[Zagreb]], [[Topusko]], [[Bihać]] and then [[Knin]], eventually reaching town of [[Split, Croatia|Split]] on the Adriatic coast.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kužić |first=Krešimir |title=Hrvati i križari |publisher=Hrvatski institut za povijest |year=2003 |isbn=953-6324-37-7 |location=Zagreb |pages=51–59 |language=Croatian}}</ref> As Andrew lacked needed naval fleet to take his army to the Holy Land, he decided to arrange transport with Venetians. In return, Andrew II decided to completely give up the Hungarian kings' rights on Zadar, whom Venetians had captured during the Fourth crusade.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Klaić |first=Vjekoslav |title=Povijest Hrvata |publisher=Nakladni zavod Matice hrvatske |year=1988 |location=Zagreb |pages=225–226 |language=Croatian}}</ref> After staying in Split for three weeks for logistical reasons and realising that Croatians will not be joining his crusade, king and his army sailed off to [[Holy Land|the Holy Land]].<ref>Thomas The Archdeacon, ''Historia Salonitana'', chapter: De passagio Andree regis</ref> Historian Krešimir Kužić attributes this low desire of Croatians to join king Andrew's crusade to earlier bad memories related to destruction and looting of Zadar in 1202.<ref>Kužić 34-35</ref> When king Andrew II returned from the crusade, he brought back a number of [[relic]]s, some of which remain stored in the [[Zagreb Cathedral#Treasury|treasury of Zagreb Cathedral]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sve tajne crkvenog blaga: Skrivali ga od ratova, lukavih kradljivaca, a njegova je vrijednost - neprocjenjiva |url=https://www.tportal.hr/vijesti/clanak/sve-tajne-crkvenog-blaga-skrivali-ga-od-ratova-lukavih-kradljivaca-a-njegova-je-vrijednost-neprocjenjiva-foto-20190310 |access-date=2023-07-27 |website=tportal.hr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-06-23 |title=Relikvije, kosti, krv, ljubavna pisma: RTL Direkt otkriva zanimljivosti riznice zagrebačke katedrale! |url=https://danas.hr/zanimljivosti/relikvije-kosti-krv-ljubavna-pisma-rtl-direkt-otkriva-zanimljivosti-riznice-zagrebacke-katedrale-bbec596c-b9ee-11ec-a1ee-0242ac120051 |access-date=2023-07-27 |website=danas.hr |language=hr-HR}}</ref>

Andrew's son [[Béla IV of Hungary|King Béla IV]] was forced to deal with troubles brought by the [[first Mongol invasion of Hungary]]. Following the Hungarian defeat in the [[Battle of Mohi|Battle of the Sajó River]] in 1241, the king withdrew to Dalmatia, hoping to take refuge there, with the Mongols in pursuit. The Mongol army followed the king to Split hinterland, which they ravaged.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book |last=Toma |first=Arhiđakon |title=HISTORIA SALONITANA |publisher=Književni krug |year=2003 |location=Split |language=Croatian |chapter=O bijegu Tatara, O okrutnosti Tatara}}</ref> The king took refuge in nearby town of [[Trogir]], hoping to make use of its island-like fort which offered some protection from Mongol onslaught.<ref name=":12" /> 
[[File:HR-Festung-Klis-07.jpg|thumb|250x250px|[[Fortress of Klis|Klis Fortress]] in the hinterland of town of [[Split, Croatia|Split]] was one of the places that saw action during the [[First Mongol invasion of Hungary]] in 1242.]]
Meanwhile, Mongols thinking that the king is hiding in [[Fortress of Klis|Klis fortress]] attempted to clib up the steep cliffs of Klis, while the fort defenders hurled rocks on their heads.<ref name=":12" /> Eventually hand-to-hand combat ensued inside the fortress, but upon realising that king isn't in Klis, the Mongols abandoned their attempts to take the fort and headed towards Trogir. As Mongols prepared to attack Trogir, king Bela prepared boats in an attempt to flee across the sea.<ref name=":12" />

This decisive Mongol attack on Trogir never happened as they withdrew upon receiving news about the death of [[Ögedei Khan]]. As Croatian historian Damir Karbić notes, during Béla's stay in Dalmatia, members of the Šubić noble family earned merit for sheltering him, so in return, the king granted them the County of [[Bribir, Šibenik-Knin County|Bribir]] in hereditary possession, where their power grew until reached the peak in the time of [[Paul I Šubić of Bribir]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Karbić |first=Damir |title=Šubići Bribirski do gubitka nasljedne banske časti (1322.) |url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/file/11821 |journal=Zbornik Odsjeka za povijesne znanosti Zavoda za povijesne i društvene znanosti Hrvatske akademije znanosti i umjetnosti |pages=8–10}}</ref>

This period, therefore, saw the rise of the [[Frankopan]]s and the [[Šubić]]s, native nobility, to prominence. Numerous future Bans of Croatia originated from these two noble families.<ref name="Font">{{cite journal |author=Márta Font |date=July 2005 |title=Ugarsko Kraljevstvo i Hrvatska u srednjem vijeku |trans-title=Hungarian Kingdom and Croatia in the Middle Ages |url=http://hrcak.srce.hr/index.php?show=clanak&id_clanak_jezik=13778 |journal=Povijesni prilozi |language=hr |publisher=Croatian Institute of History |volume=28 |issue=28 |pages=7–22 |issn=0351-9767 |access-date=17 October 2011}}</ref> The princes of Bribir from the Šubić family became particularly influential, as they asserted their control over large parts of Dalmatia, [[Slavonia]], and even Bosnia.

=== Croatia under the Anjou dynasty ===
[[File:Ancient Varvaria - Breberium - Bribir 05.jpg|thumb|250x250px|One of the seats of 14th-century magnate [[Paul I Šubić of Bribir|Paul Šubić]], in [[Bribir, Šibenik-Knin County|Bribir]]. Paul held the hereditary titles of the [[Ban of Croatia]] and [[Banate of Bosnia|Lord of Bosnia]]. Croatian historians sometimes refer to Paul as "the uncrowned king of Croatia".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bribir: Napušteni grad Šubića, hrvatska Troja |url=https://www.vecernji.hr/lifestyle/bribir-napusteni-grad-subica-hrvatska-troja-1025056 |access-date=2022-08-17 |website=www.vecernji.hr |language=hr |quote=Stjepkov sin Pavao I., najznačajnija osoba obitelji Šubića i hrvatski ban od 1273.-1312., svoju vlast proširio je na cijelu Hrvatsku, Bosnu i Hum. Pavao je bio neokrunjeni kralj Hrvatske koji je kovao čak i svoj novac. Umro je 1. svibnja 1312. i pokopan u Bribiru.}}</ref>]]
By the early 14th century lord [[Paul I Šubić of Bribir|Paul Šubić]] accumulated so much power, that he ruled as a de facto independent ruler. He coined his own money and held the hereditary title of Ban of Croatia. Following the death of king [[Ladislaus IV of Hungary]], who had no male heir, a succession crisis emerged, and in 1300, Paul invited [[Charles I of Hungary|Charles Robert of Anjou]] to come to the [[Kingdom of Hungary]] and take over its royal seat.<ref>Karbić, 15</ref> A civil war ensued, in which Charles' party prevailed after winning a decisive victory in the [[Battle of Rozgony]] in 1312.

Coronations of the kings of Croatia gradually fell into abeyance as a custom. Charles Robert was the last to be separately crowned as King of Croatia in 1301, after which Croatia had a separate constitution. Lord Paul Šubić died in 1312, and his son [[Mladen II Šubić of Bribir|Mladen]] inherited the title of Ban of Croatia. Mladen's power was diminished due to the new king's policy of centralization, after he and his forces were defeated by the royal army and its allies in the [[Battle of Bliska]] in 1322. The power vacuum caused by the downfall of Mladen Šubić was used by Venice to reassert control over [[Dalmatian city-states|Dalmatian cities]]. Following downfall of Croatian magnates and restoration of royal authority over Croatia, around 1350, first instance of Croatian-Dalmatian [[Croatian Parliament|Assembly]] ([[Croatian Parliament|hrvatski Sabor]]), attested by historical sources, took place near [[Benkovac]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Zasjedanje prvog Općeg sabora Kraljevine Dalmacije i Hrvatske 1350. godine |url=http://www.sabor.hr/hr/o-saboru/povijest-saborovanja/zanimljivosti/zasjedanje-prvog-opceg-sabora-kraljevine-dalmacije-i |access-date=2024-07-21 |website=Hrvatski sabor |language=hr}}</ref> The assembly was summoned by [[ban of Croatia]] in August and it gathered members of [[Twelve noble tribes of Croatia|twelve Croatian noble families]]. In subsequent period, the Croatian-Dalmatian assembly most often took place in [[Knin]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Zasjedanje prvog Općeg sabora Kraljevine Dalmacije i Hrvatske 1350. godine {{!}} Hrvatski sabor |url=https://www.sabor.hr/hr/o-saboru/povijest-saborovanja/zanimljivosti/zasjedanje-prvog-opceg-sabora-kraljevine-dalmacije-i |access-date=2024-11-26 |website=www.sabor.hr |language=hr}}</ref>

The ensuing reign of King [[Louis the Great]] (1342–1382) is considered the golden age of medieval Croatian history.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vardić |first1=Zrinka Pešorda |title=The crown, the king and the town – the relation of Dubrovnik community toward the crown and the ruler in the beginning of movement against the Court |journal=Historische Beiträge |date=2004 |volume=23 |issue=26 |url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/22245}}</ref> Louis launched a campaign against Venice, with aim of retaking Dalmatian cities, and eventually succeeded, forcing Venice to sign the [[Treaty of Zadar]] in 1358. The same peace treaty caused the [[Republic of Ragusa]] to gain independence from Venice.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jakšić |first=Nikola |date=1998-11-05 |title=The Mediaeval Sabor (Assembly) ofNoble Croats at Podbrižane |url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/clanak/137251 |journal=Starohrvatska Prosvjeta |language=hr |volume=III |issue=25 |pages=109–126 |issn=0351-4536}}</ref>

=== Anti-Court struggles period ===
{{See also|Bloody Sabor of Križevci|Venetian Dalmatia}}
[[File:Burg Vrana Pagano.jpg|left|thumb|250x250px|A 16th century depiction of [[Priory of Vrana|Vrana monastery]], seat of [[John of Palisna]].]]

After king Louis The Great died in 1382, the Kingdom of Hungary and Croatia descended into a period of destructive [[War of succession|dynastic struggles]] called The Anti-Court movement. The struggle was waged between two factions, one of which was centered around late king's daughter [[Mary, Queen of Hungary|Mary]], her mother [[Elizabeth of Bosnia|queen Elizabeth]], and her fiancé [[Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor|Sigismund of Luxemburg]]. The faction which opposed them was a coalition of Croatian nobility which supported [[Charles III of Naples|Charles of Durazzo]] to become a new king of Hungary and Croatia.<ref>Macan, 63</ref> This faction consisted of powerful [[John of Palisna]], and [[John Horvat|Horvat brothers]], who opposed the idea of being ruled by a female and, secondly, of being ruled by Sigismund of Luxemburg whom they considered alien.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Klaić |first=Vjekoslav |title=Povijest Hrvata |publisher=Matica hrvatska |year=1988 |volume=II |pages=244}}</ref> As alternative, they arranged for [[Charles III of Naples|Charles of Durazzo]] to come to Croatia and crowned him as new king of Hungary-Croatia in [[Székesfehérvár|Szekezfehervar]] in December 1385. Charles' opponents - queen Elizabeth and princess Mary, responded by organizing Charles' assassination in [[Buda]] in February 1386.<ref>Povijest Hrvata Vol 2, 256-257</ref> Enraged anti-court supporters then retaliated by making an ambush for two queens near Gorjani in July 1386, where their escort was eliminated and both queens were taken to captivity in [[Novigrad Castle]] near [[Zadar]].<ref>Povijest Hrvata Vol 2, 258-261</ref> Once in Novigrad, queen Elizabeth was strangled to death, but her daughter Mary was eventually rescued by her fiancé Sigismund.<ref>Povijest Hrvata Vol 2, 258-268</ref>[[File:Novigrad Croatia.jpg|thumb|250x250px|[[Novigrad Castle]], near [[Zadar]] was a place where anti-court supporters held queens Mary and Elizabeth in captivity. [[Velebit|Velebit mountain]] can be seen in castle's background.  ]]
In 1387, Sigismund of Luxemburg crowned himself a new king of Hungary-Croatia. In following period he too became engaged in power struggle against opposing Croatian and Bosnian nobility in order to assert his rule over the realm. In 1396, Sigismund organized a crusade against the expanding Ottomans which culminated in [[Battle of Nicopolis]]. When the battle ended, it was unclear whether Sigismund got out alive or not, so [[Stephen II Lackfi]] proclaimed [[Ladislaus of Naples]] a new king of Hungary-Croatia. When Sigismund, nonetheless did returned to Croatia, he summoned [[Bloody Sabor of Križevci|diet in Križevci in 1397]], where he confronted his adversaries and eliminated them.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |title=Sigismund Luksemburgovac |url=https://www.enciklopedija.hr/clanak/sigismund-luksemburgovac |access-date=2023-04-01 |website=www.enciklopedija.hr}}</ref> Sigismund was again forced fight for the control, but by 1403 entire southern Croatia and Dalmatian cities defected to [[Ladislaus of Naples]].<ref name=":7" /> Sigismund eventually managed to crush anti-court movement by winning [[1408 Battle of Dobor]] in Bosnia.<ref name=":7" />  Since [[anti-king]] Ladislaus lost hope of prevailing in struggle against Sigismund, he sold all his nominal possessions in Dalmatia to [[Republic of Venice]] for 100 000 [[Ducat]]s in 1409.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ladislav Napuljski |url=https://www.enciklopedija.hr/clanak/ladislav-napuljski |access-date=2023-04-01 |website=www.enciklopedija.hr}}</ref> The Venetians asserted their control over most of Dalmatia by 1428.<ref name="frucht422">Frucht 2005, p. 422-423</ref> The rule of Venice over most of Dalmatia continued on for nearly four centuries ({{circa}} 1420–1797) until the end of [[Republic of Venice|The Republic]] by [[Treaty of Campo Formio]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Campoformio |url=https://www.enciklopedija.hr/clanak/campoformio |access-date=2023-04-08 |website=www.enciklopedija.hr}}</ref> Another long term consequence of Anti-Court struggles was arrival of Ottomans to neighbouring [[Kingdom of Bosnia]] at the invite of powerful Bosnian duke [[Hrvoje Vukčić Hrvatinić]] to help him fight against forces of king Sigismund.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hrvatinić, Hrvoje Vukčić |url=https://www.enciklopedija.hr/clanak/hrvatinic-hrvoje-vukcic |access-date=2023-06-10 |website=www.enciklopedija.hr}}</ref> The Ottomans gradually strengthened their influence in Bosnia until finally completely conquering the kingdom in 1463.

=== Ottoman invasions ===
{{main|Hundred Years' Croatian–Ottoman War}}{{See also|Ghaza thesis|}}[[File:Battle of Krbava Field.jpg|thumb|225x225px|The woodcut by [[Leonhard Beck]], from {{circa}} 1515, depicts the [[Battle of Krbava Field]] between the Army of Croatian nobility and Ottoman akinjis.]]

Serious Ottoman attacks on Croatian lands began after the fall of [[Kingdom of Bosnia|Bosnia]] to the Ottomans in 1463. At this point main Ottoman attacks were not yet directed towards Central Europe, with [[Vienna]] as its main objective, but towards renaissance Italy with Croatia standing on their way between.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=Matica hrvatska - Hrvatska revija 2, 2015. - Croato-Turcica: pregled povijesne interakcije Globalni okvir |url=https://www.matica.hr/hr/459/croato-turcica-pregled-povijesne-interakcije-globalni-okvir-24928/ |access-date=2023-03-10 |website=www.matica.hr}}</ref> As the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] launched expansion further into Europe, Croatian lands became a place of permanent warfare. This period of history is considered to be one of the direst for the people living in Croatia. Baroque poet [[Pavao Ritter Vitezović]] subsequently described this period of Croatian history as "[[Plorantis Croatiae saecula duo|two centuries of weeping Croatia]]".

Armies of Croatian nobility fought numerous battles to counter the Ottoman [[akinji]] and [[martolos]] raids.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Jurković |first=Ivan |title=Vrijeme sazrijevanja, vrijeme razaraja |publisher=Matica hrvatska |year=2019 |isbn=978-953-341-144-6 |location=Zagreb |pages=99–111 |language=Croatian |chapter=Migracije. Raseljenička kriza za osmanske ugroze: "U bašćini mojoj ne dadu mi priti"}}</ref> The Ottoman forces frequently raided the Croatian countryside, plundering towns and villages and captured the local inhabitants as slaves. These "[[scorched earth]]" tactics, also called "The Small War", were usually conducted once a year with intention to soften up the region's defenses, but didn't result in actual conquest of territory.<ref name=":0" /> According to historian [[James Tracy (historian)|James Tracy]], the armies Croatian ban could muster proved too few to counter akinji raids along the long border with the Ottoman Empire. On the other hand, armies of Croatian nobility could never mobilize fast enough to intercept akinji raids "head on", instead, Croatians hoped to intercept Ottoman raiders on their return, as they were slowed down by their booty and hostages.<ref>Tracy, 43</ref>

{{Blockquote
|text=And after conquering [[Byzantine Empire|Greece]] and [[Second Bulgarian Empire|Bulgaria]], [[Kingdom of Bosnia|Bosnia]] and Albania, [Turks] flocked onto people of Croatia by sending many armies. Many warlords started frequent battles with Christian people fighting on the fields and in mountain passes and on river fords. That's when all Croatian and Slavonian lands were enslaved all the way to [[Sava]] river and [[Drava]] and even [[Moslavačka gora|Mons Claudius]], all settlements of [[Carniola]] all the way to sea, by enslaving, robbing, burning houses of Lord and crushing Lord's altars. They attacked old people using weapons, young women [...] widows and even squealing children; not only that they took people of God in violent sorrow, shackled in chains, but they also sold people on markets like it is accustomed to do with the cattle.
|source=[[Martinac (priest)|''The Record of Father Martinac'']], 15th century Croatian scribe<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mijatović |first=Anđelko |title=Bitka na Krbavskom polju 1493. godine |publisher=Školska knjiga |year=2005 |isbn=953-0-61429-2 |location=Zagreb |pages=118–119 |language=hr}}</ref>
}}

[[Hundred Years' Croatian–Ottoman War|Frequent Ottoman raids]] eventually led to the 1493 [[Battle of Krbava field]] which ended in Croatian defeat.

Meanwhile, after king [[Matthias Corvinus|Mathias Corvinus]] died in 1490, a [[War of the Hungarian Succession|succession war ensued]], where supporters of [[Vladislaus II of Hungary|Vladislaus Jagiellon]] prevailed over those of [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian Habsburg]], another contester to the throne of Kingdom of Hungary-Croatia. Maximilian gained many supporters among Croatian nobility and a favourable peace treaty he concluded with Vladislaus enabled Croatians to increasingly turn towards Habsburgs when seeking protections from the Ottoman attacks, as their lawful king Vladislaus turned out unable to protect his subjects in Croatia.<ref>Klaić, Book IV, 219</ref> On same year, the estates of Croatia also declined to recognize [[Vladislaus II of Hungary|Vladislaus II]] as a ruler until he had taken an oath to respect their liberties and insisted that he strike from the constitution certain phrases which seemed to reduce Croatia to the rank of a mere province. The dispute was resolved in 1492<ref name="archive.org3">{{cite web |title=R. W. SETON -WATSON:The southern Slav question and the Habsburg Monarchy page 18 |url=https://archive.org/stream/southernslavques00seto/southernslavques00seto_djvu.txt |access-date=24 April 2012}}</ref> when according to [[Lujo Margetić]], king Vladislaus recognised the authonomy of both Croatia and Slavonia, whose nobility gave a separate confirmation to the succession agreement between Vladislaus and the house of Habsburg, enabling Croatians and Slavonians to have their say in future interregnum periods.<ref>Margetić, ''Zagreb i Slavonija'', 98 - 101</ref>