Editing Helena Blavatsky (section)

=== Embracing Spiritualism and establishing Theosophy: 1870–1878 ===

==== Arriving in New York City ====
[[File:Helena Blavatsky.jpg|thumb|upright|Blavatsky in 1875]]
Blavatsky alleged that she departed Tibet with the mission of proving to the world that the phenomena identified by [[Spiritualism (movement)|Spiritualists]] were objectively real, thus defending Spiritualism against accusations of fraud. However, she also stated that the entities being contacted by Spiritualist mediums were not the spirits of the dead, as the Spiritualist movement typically alleged, but instead either mischievous [[elementals]] or the "shells" left behind by the deceased.{{sfnm|1a1=Godwin|1y=1994|1p=282|2a1=Lachman|2y=2012|2pp=77–78, 81}} She proceeded via the [[Suez Canal]] to Greece, where she met with another of the Masters, [[Master Hilarion]].{{sfn|Lachman|2012|p=78}} She set sail for Egypt aboard the {{SS|Eunomia}}, but in July 1871 it exploded during the journey; Blavatsky was one of only 16 survivors.{{sfnm|1a1=Meade|1y=1980|1p=93|2a1=Cranston|2y=1993|2p=105|3a1=Godwin|3y=1994|3p=279|4a1=Lachman|4y=2012|4p=78}} Reaching Cairo, she met up with Metamon, and with the help of a woman named [[Emma Cutting]] established a ''société spirite'', which was based largely on [[Kardecist spiritism|Spiritism]], a form of Spiritualism founded by [[Allan Kardec]] which professed a belief in [[reincarnation]], in contrast to the mainstream Spiritualist movement.{{sfnm|1a1=Meade|1y=1980|1pp=94–96|2a1=Cranston|2y=1993|2pp=105–106|3a1=Godwin|3y=1994|3p=279|4a1=Goodrick-Clarke|4y=2004|4p=5|5a1=Lachman|5y=2012|5p=79}} However, Blavatsky believed that Cutting and many of the mediums employed by the society were fraudulent, and she closed it down after two weeks.{{sfnm|1a1=Cranston|1y=1993|1p=106|2a1=Godwin|2y=1994|2p=279|3a1=Lachman|3y=2012|3pp=80–81}} In Cairo, she also met with the Egyptologist [[Gaston Maspero]], and another of the Masters, Serapis Bey.{{sfn|Lachman|2012|p=82}} It was also here that she met up with Metrovitch, although he soon died of [[typhoid]], with Blavatsky claiming to have overseen the funeral.{{sfn|Lachman|2012|p=83}}

Leaving Egypt, she proceeded to Syria, Palestine, and Lebanon, there encountering members of the [[Druze]] religion.{{sfnm|1a1=Cranston|1y=1993|1pp=105, 106|2a1=Lachman|2y=2012|2pp=83–84}} It was during these travels that she met with the writer and traveler [[Lidia Pashkova]], who provided independent verification of Blavatsky's travels during this period.{{sfn|Lachman|2012|p=84}} In July 1872 she returned to her family in Odessa, before departing in April 1873.{{sfnm|1a1=Cranston|1y=1993|1pp=106–107|2a1=Lachman|2y=2012|2p=84}} She spent time in [[Bucharest]] and Paris,{{sfnm|1a1=Meade|1y=1980|1pp=96–97|2a1=Cranston|2y=1993|2p=107|3a1=Lachman|3y=2012|3p=84}} before{{spnd}}according to her later claims{{spnd}}Morya instructed her to go to the United States. Blavatsky arrived in New York City on 8 July 1873.<ref>Higgins, S. (2018). From the Seventh Arrondissement to the Seventh Ward: Blavatsky's Arrival in America 1873. Theosophical History: A Quarterly Journal of Research, XIX(4), 2nd ser., 158–171.</ref>{{sfnm|1a1=Meade|1y=1980|1p=101|2a1=Cranston|2y=1993|2pp=107–108|3a1=Washington|3y=1993|3p=40|4a1=Lachman|4y=2012|4p=84}} There, she moved into a women's housing cooperative on [[Madison Street (Manhattan)|Madison Street]] in [[Manhattan]]'s [[Lower East Side]], earning a wage through piece work sewing and designing advertising cards.{{sfnm|1a1=Meade|1y=1980|1p=102|2a1=Washington|2y=1993|2p=40|3a1=Lachman|3y=2012|3p=87}} It was here that she attracted attention, and was interviewed by the journalist Anna Ballard of the New York newspaper ''[[The Sun (New York)|The Sun]]''; this interview was the earliest textual source in which Blavatsky claimed to have spent time in Tibet.{{sfnm|1a1=Meade|1y=1980|1pp=102–103|2a1=Lachman|2y=2012|2pp=88–89}} Indeed, it was while in New York that "detailed records" of Blavatsky's life again become available to historians.{{sfn|Washington|1993|p=40}} Soon after, Blavatsky received news of her father's death, thus inheriting a considerable fortune, allowing her to move into a lavish hotel.{{sfn|Lachman|2012|pp=89–90}} In December 1874, Blavatsky met the [[Georgians|Georgian]] Mikheil Betaneli. Infatuated with her, he repeatedly requested that they marry, to which she ultimately relented; this constituted [[bigamy]], as her first husband was still alive. However, as she refused to consummate the marriage, Betaneli sued for divorce and returned to Georgia.{{sfnm|1a1=Meade|1y=1980|1pp=116–117, 137, 145|2a1=Kuhn|2y=1992|2p=58|3a1=Washington|3y=1993|3pp=48–49|4a1=Lachman|4y=2012|4pp=121–122}}

==== Meeting Henry Steel Olcott and the foundation of the Theosophical Society ====

Blavatsky was intrigued by a news story about [[William and Horatio Eddy]], brothers based in [[Chittenden, Vermont]], who it was claimed could [[Levitation (paranormal)|levitate]] and manifest spiritual phenomena. She visited Chittenden in October 1874, there meeting the reporter Henry Steel Olcott, who was investigating the brothers' claims for the ''[[Daily Graphic]]''.{{sfnm|1a1=Meade|1y=1980|1pp=110–114|2a1=Cranston|2y=1993|2pp=124–126|3a1=Washington|3y=1993|3p=29|4a1=Goodrick-Clarke|4y=2004|4p=6|5a1=Lachman|5y=2012|5pp=92–98}} Claiming that Blavatsky impressed him with her own ability to manifest spirit phenomena, Olcott authored a newspaper article on her.{{sfnm|1a1=Meade|1y=1980|1p=125|2a1=Cranston|2y=1993|2pp=126–127|3a1=Lachman|3y=2012|3pp=98–99, 101}}<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-springfield-daily-republican-the-cou/148091040/ | title=The Countess Blavatsky's Visitors | newspaper=The Springfield Daily Republican | date=9 December 1874 | page=4 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-marion-commonwealth-african-jugglery/148091103/ | title=African Jugglery | newspaper=The Marion Commonwealth | date=17 December 1874 | page=1 }}</ref> They soon became close friends, giving each other the nicknames of "Maloney" (Olcott) and "Jack" (Blavatsky).{{sfnm|1a1=Campbell|1y=1980|1p=22|2a1=Meade|2y=1980|2p=126|3a1=Washington|3y=1993|3p=43|4a1=Lachman|4y=2012|4p=101}} He helped attract greater attention to Blavatsky's claims, encouraging the Daily Graphic's editor to publish an interview with her,{{sfn|Lachman|2012|pp=107–108}}<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/holt-county-press-marvelous-spirit-manif/148090938/ | title=Marvelous Spirit Manifestations | newspaper=Holt County Press | date=December 1874 | page=1 }}</ref> and discussing her in his book on Spiritualism, ''People from the Other World'' (1875),{{sfnm|1a1=Campbell|1y=1980|1p=23|2a1=Lachman|2y=2012|2p=122}} which her Russian correspondent [[Alexandr Aksakov]] urged her to translate into Russian.{{sfn|Lachman|2012|p=123}}
She began to instruct Olcott in her own occult beliefs, and encouraged by her he became celibate, tee-totaling, and vegetarian, although she herself was unable to commit to the latter.{{sfn|Lachman|2012|pp=108–109}} In January 1875 the duo visited the Spiritualist mediums [[Nelson and Jennie Owen]] in [[Philadelphia]]; the Owens asked Olcott to test them to prove that the phenomena that they produced were not fraudulent, and while Olcott believed them, Blavatsky opined that they faked some of their phenomena in those instances when genuine phenomena failed to manifest.{{sfnm|1a1=Meade|1y=1980|1pp=134–135|2a1=Washington|2y=1993|2pp=42–43|3a1=Lachman|3y=2012|3pp=108–110}}

[[File:Blavatsky.020.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Blavatsky, {{circa|1877}}]]

Drumming up interest for their ideas, Blavatsky and Olcott published a circular letter in [[Eldridge Gerry Brown]]'s [[Boston]]-based Spiritualist publication, ''[[The Spiritual Scientist]]''.{{sfnm|1a1=Meade|1y=1980|1p=140|2a1=Washington|2y=1993|2p=495|3a1=Godwin|3y=1994|3p=282|4a1=Lachman|4y=2012|4p=124}} There, they named themselves the "Brotherhood of Luxor", a name potentially inspired by the pre-existing [[Hermetic Brotherhood of Luxor]].{{sfnm|1a1=Meade|1y=1980|1p=140|2a1=Godwin|2y=1994|2p=282|3a1=Lachman|3y=2012|3pp=124, 126}} They began living together in a series of rented apartments in New York City, which they decorated with [[taxidermy|taxidermied]] animals and images of spiritual figures; their life was funded largely by Olcott's continued work as a lawyer.{{sfnm|1a1=Washington|1y=1993|1pp=44–45|2a1=Lachman|2y=2012|2pp=143–144}} Their last such apartment came to be known as the Lamasery.{{sfnm|1a1=Campbell|1y=1980|1p=76|2a1=Meade|2y=1980|2p=177|3a1=Goodrick-Clarke|3y=2004|3pp=10–11}} Allegedly encouraged by the Masters, Blavatsky and Olcott established the Miracle Club, through which they facilitated lectures on esoteric themes in New York City.{{sfnm|1a1=Campbell|1y=1980|1p=26|2a1=Washington|2y=1993|2p=49|3a1=Goodrick-Clarke|3y=2004|3p=7|4a1=Lachman|4y=2012|4pp=129–130}} It was through this group that they met an Irish Spiritualist, [[William Quan Judge]], who shared many of their interests.{{sfnm|1a1=Meade|1y=1980|1p=148|2a1=Goodrick-Clarke|2y=2004|2p=7|3a1=Lachman|3y=2012|3pp=129–130}}

At a Miracle Club meeting on 7 September 1875, Blavatsky, Olcott, and Judge agreed to establish an esoteric organization, with [[Charles Sotheran]] suggesting that they call it the [[Theosophical Society]].{{sfnm|1a1=Campbell|1y=1980|1pp=27–28|2a1=Meade|2y=1980|2p=151|3a1=Washington|3y=1993|3pp=53–54|4a1=Goodrick-Clarke|4y=2004|4p=7|5a1=Lachman|5y=2012|5pp=130–31, 136}} The term ''[[Theosophy (Blavatskian)|theosophy]]'' came from the Greek ''theos'' ("god(s)") and ''sophia'' ("wisdom"), thus meaning "god-wisdom" or "divine wisdom".{{sfn|Lachman|2012|p=132}} The term was not new, but had been previously used in various contexts by the [[Eirenaeus Philalethes|Philaletheians]] and the Christian mystic, [[Jakob Böhme]].{{sfnm|1a1=Washington|1y=1993|1p=55|2a1=Goodrick-Clarke|2y=2004|2p=8|3a1=Lachman|3y=2012|3p=133}} Theosophists would often argue over how to define Theosophy, with Judge expressing the view that the task was impossible.{{sfn|Lachman|2012|p=132}} Blavatsky however insisted that Theosophy was not a religion in itself.{{sfn|Lachman|2012|p=137}} Lachman has described the movement as "a very wide umbrella, under which quite a few things could find a place".{{sfn|Lachman|2012|p=135}}
On foundation, Olcott was appointed chairman, with Judge as secretary, and Blavatsky as corresponding secretary, although she remained the group's primary theoretician and leading figure.{{sfnm|1a1=Meade|1y=1980|1p=155|2a1=Goodrick-Clarke|2y=2004|2p=7|3a1=Lachman|3y=2012|3pp=130–131, 135–136}} Prominent early members included [[Emma Hardinge Britten]], [[Signor Bruzzesi]], [[C.C. Massey]], and [[William L. Alden]]; many were prominent and successful members of the establishment, although not all would remain members for long.{{sfnm|1a1=Washington|1y=1993|1pp=53–54|2a1=Lachman|2y=2012|2pp=136–137}}

==== ''Isis Unveiled'' ====

{{quote box|width=25em|align=left|quote=The underlying theme among these diverse topics {{bracket|in ''Isis Unveiled''}} is the existence of an ancient wisdom-religion, an ageless occult guide to the cosmos, nature and human life. The many faiths of man are said to derive from a universal religion known to both [[Plato]] and the ancient Hindu sages. The wisdom-religion is also identified with Hermetic philosophy as "the only possible key to the Absolute in science and theology" (I, vii). Every religion is based on the same truth or "secret doctrine", which contains "the alpha and omega of universal science" (I, 511). This ancient wisdom-religion will become the religion of the future (I, 613).|source=—Historian Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke, 2004.{{sfn|Goodrick-Clarke|2004|p=9}}}}

In 1875, Blavatsky began work on a book outlining her Theosophical worldview, much of which would be written during a stay in the [[Ithaca, New York|Ithaca]] home of [[Hiram Corson]], a Professor of English Literature at [[Cornell University]]. Although she had hoped to call it ''The Veil of Isis'', it would be published as ''[[Isis Unveiled]]''.{{sfnm|1a1=Campbell|1y=1980|1p=31|2a1=Meade|2y=1980|2pp=152, 176|3a1=Lachman|3y=2012|3pp=137, 140–143}} While writing it, Blavatsky claimed to be aware of a second consciousness within her body, referring to it as "the lodger who is in me", and stating that it was this second consciousness that inspired much of the writing.{{sfnm|1a1=Goodrick-Clarke|1y=2004|1p=8|2a1=Lachman|2y=2012|2pp=137–138}} In ''Isis Unveiled'', Blavatsky quoted extensively from other esoteric and religious texts, although her contemporary and colleague Olcott always maintained that she had quoted from books that she did not have access to.{{sfnm|1a1=Goodrick-Clarke|1y=2004|1p=8|2a1=Lachman|2y=2012|2p=147}} Writing more than a century after her death Lachman conjectured that if this had been the case, then she had had an [[eidetic memory]],{{sfn|Lachman|2012|p=148}} such that, while relying on earlier sources, the book represented an original synthesis that connected disparate ideas not brought together before.{{sfn|Lachman|2012|p=154}}

[[File:Cover of 'Blavatsky Unveiled. The Writings of H. P. Blavatsky in modern English. Volume 1.' By Moon Laramie.jpg|thumb|upright|Cover of 'Blavatsky Unveiled', the first translation of Isis Unveiled into modern English.]]

Revolving around Blavatsky's idea that all the world's religions stemmed from a single "Ancient Wisdom", which she connected to the Western esotericism of ancient [[Hermeticism]] and [[Neoplatonism]],{{sfnm|1a1=Goodrick-Clarke|1y=2004|1p=9|2a1=Lachman|2y=2012|2pp=155, 157}} it also articulated her thoughts on Spiritualism,{{sfn|Lachman|2012|p=156}} and provided a criticism of [[Darwinian evolution]], stating that it dealt only with the physical world and ignored the spiritual realms.{{sfn|Lachman|2012|pp=159–160}}
The book was edited by Professor of Philosophy [[Alexander Wilder]] and published in two volumes by J.W. Bouton in 1877.{{sfnm|1a1=Meade|1y=1980|1pp=173, 176|2a1=Goodrick-Clarke|2y=2004|2p=9|3a1=Lachman|3y=2012|3pp=150–151}} Although facing negative mainstream press reviews, including from those who highlighted that it extensively quoted around 100 other books without acknowledgement,{{sfnm|1a1=Campbell|1y=1980|1p=33|2a1=Washington|2y=1993|2p=52}} it proved to be such a commercial success, with its initial print run of 1,000 copies selling out in a week,{{sfnm|1a1=Campbell|1y=1980|1p=35|2a1=Meade|2y=1980|2p=179|3a1=Washington|3y=1993|3p=52|4a1=Lachman|4y=2012|4p=152}} that the publisher requested a sequel, although Blavatsky turned down the offer.{{sfn|Lachman|2012|p=154}}
While ''Isis Unveiled'' was a success, the Society remained largely inactive,{{sfnm|1a1=Washington|1y=1993|1p=57|2a1=Lachman|2y=2012|2p=170}} having fallen into this state in autumn 1876.{{sfn|Meade|1980|p=174}} This was despite the fact that new lodges of the organization had been established throughout the U.S. and in London, and prominent figures like [[Thomas Edison]] and [[Abner Doubleday]] had joined.{{sfn|Lachman|2012|p=171}} In July 1878, Blavatsky gained U.S. citizenship.{{sfnm|1a1=Meade|1y=1980|1p=183|2a1=Lachman|2y=2012|2p=171}}