Editing Geʽez (section)

== Morphology ==

=== Nouns ===

Geʽez distinguishes two genders, masculine and feminine, the latter of which is sometimes marked with the suffix {{lang|gez|ት}} {{transliteration|sem|-t}}, e.g. {{lang|gez|እኅት}} {{transliteration|sem|{{hamza}}əxt}} ("sister"). These are less strongly distinguished than in other Semitic languages, as many nouns not denoting humans can be used in either gender: in translated Christian texts there is even a tendency for nouns to follow the gender of the noun with a corresponding meaning in Greek.{{sfn|Lambdin|1978|p=26}}

There are two numbers, singular and plural. The plural can be constructed either by suffixing {{lang|gez|ኣት}} {{transliteration|sem|-āt}} to a word (regardless of gender, but often {{lang|gez|ኣን}} {{transliteration|sem|-ān}} if it is a male human noun), or by using an [[internal plural]].{{sfn|Lambdin|1978|p=21}}

* Plural using suffix: {{lang|gez|ዓመት}} {{transliteration|sem|ʿāmat}} ("year") plural {{lang|gez|ዓመታት}} {{transliteration|sem|ʿāmatāt}}, {{lang|gez|ገዳም}} {{transliteration|sem|gadām}} ("wilderness, uninhabited area") plural {{lang|gez|ገዳማት}} {{transliteration|sem|gadāmāt}}, {{lang|gez|ሊቅ}} {{transliteration|sem|liq}} ("elder, chief") plural {{lang|gez|ሊቃን}} {{transliteration|sem|liqān}}, {{lang|gez|ጳጳስ}} {{transliteration|sem|p̣āp̣p̣ās}} ("(arch)bishop") plural {{lang|gez|ጳጳሳት}} {{transliteration|sem|p̣āp̣p̣āsāt}}.
* Internal plural: {{lang|gez|ቤት}} {{transliteration|sem|bet}} ("house") plural {{lang|gez|አብያት}} {{transliteration|sem|ʾabyāt}}, {{lang|gez|ቅርንብ}} {{transliteration|sem|qərnəb}} ("eyelid") plural {{lang|gez|ቀራንብት}} {{transliteration|sem|qarānəbt}}.

Nouns also have two cases: the nominative, which is not marked, and the accusative, which is marked with final {{transliteration|sem|-a}}. As in other Semitic languages, there are at least two "states", absolute (unmarked) and [[construct state|construct]] (marked with {{transliteration|sem|-a}} as well).

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Declension of {{lang|gez|ሊቅ}} {{transliteration|sem|liq}} ("elder, chief")
|-
! !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
! !! Absolute<br />state !! Construct<br />state !! Absolute<br />state !! Construct<br />state
|-
! Nominative
| {{lang|gez|ሊቅ}} {{transliteration|sem|liq}} || {{lang|gez|ሊቀ}} {{transliteration|sem|liq'''a'''}}
| {{lang|gez|ሊቃን}} {{transliteration|sem|liqān}} || {{lang|gez|ሊቃነ}} {{transliteration|sem|liqān'''a'''}}
|-
! Accusative
| {{lang|gez|ሊቀ}} {{transliteration|sem|liq'''a'''}} || {{lang|gez|ሊቀ}} {{transliteration|sem|liq'''a'''}}
| {{lang|gez|ሊቃነ}} {{transliteration|sem|liqān'''a'''}} || {{lang|gez|ሊቃነ}} {{transliteration|sem|liqān'''a'''}}
|}

As in [[Arabic language|Classical/Standard Arabic]], singular and plural nouns often take the same final inflectional affixes for case and state, as number morphology is achieved via attaching a suffix to the stem and/or an internal change in the stem.

There is some morphological interaction between consonant-final nouns and a pronoun suffix (see the table of suffix pronouns below). For example, when followed by {{lang|gez|የ}} {{transliteration|sem|-ya}} ("my"), in both nominative and accusative the resulting form is {{lang|gez|ሊቅየ}} {{transliteration|sem|liqə́ya}} (i.e. the accusative is ''not'' {{lang|gez|*ሊቀየ}} {{transliteration|sem|*liqáya}}), but with {{lang|gez|ከ}} {{transliteration|sem|-ka}} ("your", masculine singular) there's a distinction between nominative {{lang|gez|ሊቅከ}} {{transliteration|sem|liqə́ka}} and accusative {{lang|gez|ሊቀከ}} {{transliteration|sem|liqáka}}, and similarly with {{transliteration|sem|-hu}} ("his") between nominative {{lang|gez|ሊቁ}} {{transliteration|sem|liqú}} (< {{transliteration|sem|*liq-ə-hu}}) and accusative {{lang|gez|ሊቆ}} {{transliteration|sem|liqó}} (< {{transliteration|sem|*liqa-hu}}).{{sfn|Tropper|2021|loc=§&nbsp;4.1.2.2}}{{sfn|Lambdin|1978|p=40}}

==== Internal plural ====

Internal plurals follow certain patterns. Triconsonantal nouns follow one of the following patterns.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Patterns of internal plural for triconsonantal nouns{{sfn|Gragg|1997b|p=248}}{{sfn|Gragg|2008|p=440}} <br />(C=Consonant, V=Vowel)
|-
!Pattern
!Singular
!Meaning
!Plural
|-
| rowspan="5"|'''ʾaCCāC'''
| {{lang|gez|ልብስ}} {{transliteration|gez|ləbs}}
| 'garment'
| {{lang|gez|አልባስ}} {{transliteration|gez|ʾalbās}}
|-
| {{lang|gez|ፈረስ}} {{transliteration|gez|faras}}
| 'horse'
| {{lang|gez|አፍራስ}} {{transliteration|gez|ʾafrās}}
|-
| {{lang|gez|ቤት}} {{transliteration|gez|bet}}
| 'house'
| {{lang|gez|አብያት}} {{transliteration|gez|ʾabyāt}}
|-
| {{lang|gez|ጾም}} {{transliteration|gez|ṣom}}
| 'fast'
| {{lang|gez|አጽዋም}} {{transliteration|gez|ʾaṣwām}}
|-
| {{lang|gez|ስም}} {{transliteration|gez|səm}}
| 'name'
| {{lang|gez|አስማት}} {{transliteration|gez|ʾasmāt}}
|-
| rowspan="2"|'''ʾaCCuC'''
| {{lang|gez|ሀገር}} {{transliteration|gez|hagar}}
| 'country'
| {{lang|gez|አህጉር}} {{transliteration|gez|ʾahgur}}
|-
| {{lang|gez|አድግ}} {{transliteration|gez|ʾadg}}
| 'ass'
| {{lang|gez|አእዱግ}} {{transliteration|gez|ʾaʾdug}}
|-
| rowspan="3"|'''ʾaCCəC(t)'''
| {{lang|gez|በትር}} {{transliteration|gez|batr}}
| 'rod'
| {{lang|gez|አብትር}} {{transliteration|gez|ʾabtər}}
|-
| {{lang|gez|ርእስ}} {{transliteration|gez|rə's}}
| 'head'
| {{lang|gez|አርእስት}} {{transliteration|gez|ʾarʾəst}}
|-
| {{lang|gez|ገብር}} {{transliteration|gez|gabr}}
| 'servant, slave'
| {{lang|gez|አግብርት}} {{transliteration|gez|ʾagbərt}}
|-
| rowspan="2"|'''ʾaCāCəC(t)'''
| {{lang|gez|በግዕ}} {{transliteration|gez|bagʽ}}
| 'sheep'
| {{lang|gez|አባግዕ}} {{transliteration|gez|’abāgəʽ}}
|-
| {{lang|gez|ጋንን}} {{transliteration|gez|gānən}}
| 'devil'
| {{lang|gez|አጋንንት}} {{transliteration|gez|’agānənt}}
|-
| rowspan="2"|'''CVCaC'''
| {{lang|gez|እዝን}} {{transliteration|gez|’əzn}}
| 'ear'
| {{lang|gez|እዘን}} {{transliteration|gez|’əzan}}
|-
| {{lang|gez|እግር}} {{transliteration|gez|’əgr}}
| 'foot'
| {{lang|gez|እገር}} {{transliteration|gez|’əgar}}
|-
| rowspan="3"|'''CVCaw'''
| {{lang|gez|እድ}} {{transliteration|gez|’əd}}
| 'hand'
| {{lang|gez|እደው}} {{transliteration|gez|’ədaw}}
|-
| {{lang|gez|አብ}} {{transliteration|gez|’ab}}
| 'father'
| {{lang|gez|አበው}} {{transliteration|gez|’abaw}}
|-
| {{lang|gez|እኍ/እኅው}} {{transliteration|gez|’əḫʷ/’əḫəw}}
| 'brother'
| {{lang|gez|አኀው}} {{transliteration|gez|’aḫaw}}
|}

Quadriconsonantal and some triconsonantal nouns follow the following pattern. Triconsonantal nouns that take this pattern must have at least one "long" vowel (namely {{IPA|/i e o u/}}).{{sfn|Gragg|1997b|p=248}}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Patterns of internal plural for quadriconsonantal nouns{{sfn|Gragg|1997b|p=248}}{{sfn|Gragg|2008|p=440}} <br />(C=Consonant, V=Vowel)
|-
!Pattern
!Meaning
!Singular
!Plural
|-
| rowspan="9"|'''CaCāCəC(t)'''
| 'virgin'
| {{lang|gez|ድንግል}} {{transliteration|gez|dəngəl}}
| {{lang|gez|ደናግል}} {{transliteration|gez|danāgəl}}
|-
| 'prince'
| {{lang|gez|መስፍን}} {{transliteration|gez|masfən}}
| {{lang|gez|መሳፍንት}} {{transliteration|gez|masāfənt}}
|-
| 'star'
| {{lang|gez|ኮከብ}} {{transliteration|gez|kokab}}
| {{lang|gez|ከዋክብት}} {{transliteration|gez|kawākəbt}}
|-
| 'window'
| {{lang|gez|መስኮት}} {{transliteration|gez|maskot}}
| {{lang|gez|መሳኩት}} {{transliteration|gez|masākut < masākəwt}}
|-
| 'chicken'
| {{lang|gez|ዶርሆ}} {{transliteration|gez|dorho}}
| {{lang|gez|ደራውህ}} {{transliteration|gez|darāwəh}}
|-
| 'night'
| {{lang|gez|ሌሊት}} {{transliteration|gez|lelit}}
| {{lang|gez|ለያልይ}} {{transliteration|gez|layāləy}}
|-
| 'earth'
| {{lang|gez|ብሔር}} {{transliteration|gez|bəḥer}}
| {{lang|gez|በሓውርት}} {{transliteration|gez|baḥāwərt}}
|-
| 'river'
| {{lang|gez|ውሒዝ}} {{transliteration|gez|wəḥiz}}
| {{lang|gez|ወሓይዝት}} {{transliteration|gez|waḥāyəzt}}
|-
| 'priest'
| {{lang|gez|ቀሲስ}} {{transliteration|gez|qasis}}
| {{lang|gez|ቀሳውስት}} {{transliteration|gez|qasāwəst}}
|}

=== Pronominal morphology ===

In the independent pronouns, gender is not distinguished in the 1st person, and case is only distinguished in the 3rd person singular.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Personal independent pronouns{{sfn|Tropper|2021|loc=§&nbsp;4.1.1}}{{sfn|Lambdin|1978|p=29}}
|-
! colspan="3" |
! Singular !! Plural
|-
! colspan="3" | <small>1st person</small>
| {{lang|gez|አነ}} {{transliteration|gez|ʼána}} || {{lang|gez|ንሕነ}} {{transliteration|gez|nə́ḥna}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | <small>2nd person</small>
! colspan="2" | <small>masculine</small>
| {{lang|gez|አንተ}} {{transliteration|gez|ʼánta}}
| {{lang|gez|አንትሙ}} {{transliteration|gez|ʼantə́mu}}
|-
! colspan="2" | <small>feminine</small>
| {{lang|gez|አንቲ}} {{transliteration|gez|ʼánti}}
| {{lang|gez|አንትን}} {{transliteration|gez|ʼantə́n}}
|-
! rowspan="4" | <small>3rd person</small>
! rowspan="2" | <small>masculine</small>
! <small>nominative</small>
| {{lang|gez|ውእቱ}} {{transliteration|gez|wəʼə́tu}}
| rowspan="2" | {{lang|gez|ውእቶሙ}} {{transliteration|gez|wəʼətómu}}, <br />{{lang|gez|እሙንቱ}} {{transliteration|gez|ʼəmuntú}}
|-
! <small>accusative</small>
| {{lang|gez|ውእተ}} {{transliteration|gez|wəʼə́ta}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | <small>feminine</small>
! <small>nominative</small>
| {{lang|gez|ይእቲ}} {{transliteration|gez|yəʼə́ti}}
| rowspan="2" | {{lang|gez|ውእቶን}} {{transliteration|gez|wəʼətón}}, <br />{{lang|gez|እማንቱ}} {{transliteration|gez|ʼəmāntú}}
|-
! <small>accusative</small>
| {{lang|gez|ይእተ}} {{transliteration|gez|yə’ə́ta}}
|}

Suffix pronouns attach at the end of a noun, preposition or verb. The accusative/construct {{transliteration|gez|-a}} is lost when a plural noun with a consonant-final stem has a pronoun suffix attached (generally replaced by the added {{transliteration|gez|-i-}}, as in {{transliteration|gez|-i-hu}}, "his"), thereby losing the case/state distinction,<ref>{{harvnb|Lambdin|1978|p=41}}: "Plural noun. All plural nouns have a suffix -i- added to the stem before the pronominal suffixes. [...] There are no distinct accusative forms."</ref> but the distinction may be retained in the case of consonant-final singular nouns. Furthermore, suffix pronouns may or may not attract stress to themselves. In the following table, pronouns without a stress mark (an acute) are not stressed, and vowel-initial suffixes have also been given the base {{lang|gez|በ}} {{IPA|/b/}} in the script.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Suffix pronouns{{sfn|Tropper|2021|loc=§&nbsp;4.1.2}}{{sfn|Lambdin|1978|pp=40–41}}
|-
! rowspan="2" colspan="3" | !! colspan="2" | <small>Default</small> !! colspan="2" | <small>With consonant-final <br />singular nouns</small> || rowspan="2" | <small>With consonant-final <br />plural nouns</small>
|-
! <small>noun/prep.</small> !! <small>verb</small> !! <small>nominative</small> !! <small>accusative</small>
|-
! rowspan="5" | <small>Singular</small>
! colspan="2" | <small>1st person</small>
| {{lang|gez|-የ}} {{transliteration|gez|-ya}} || {{lang|gez|-ኒ}} {{transliteration|gez|-ni}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|gez|-ብየ}} {{transliteration|gez|-ə́ya}} || {{lang|gez|-ብየ}} {{transliteration|gez|-ə́ya}}, {{lang|gez|-ቢየ}} {{transliteration|gez|-íya}}{{efn|{{lang|gez|-ቢየ}} {{transliteration|gez|-íya}} is a variant mostly found in older manuscripts.{{sfn|Tropper|2021|loc=§&nbsp;4.1.2.1}}}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | <small>2nd person</small>
! <small>masculine</small>
| colspan="2" | {{lang|gez|-ከ}} {{transliteration|gez|-ka}} || {{lang|gez|-ብከ}} {{transliteration|gez|-ə́ka}} || {{lang|gez|-በከ}} {{transliteration|gez|-áka}} || {{lang|gez|-ቢከ}} {{transliteration|gez|-íka}}
|-
! <small>feminine</small>
| colspan="2" | {{lang|gez|-ኪ}} {{transliteration|gez|-ki}} || {{lang|gez|-ብኪ}} {{transliteration|gez|-ə́ki}} || {{lang|gez|-በኪ}} {{transliteration|gez|-áki}} || {{lang|gez|-ቢኪ}} {{transliteration|gez|-íki}}, {{lang|gez|-ብኪ}} {{transliteration|gez|-ə́ki}}{{efn|These two forms are in free variation.{{sfn|Tropper|2021|loc=§&nbsp;4.1.2.1}}}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | <small>3rd person</small>
! <small>masculine</small>
| colspan="2" | {{lang|gez|ሁ}} {{transliteration|gez|-hú}} || {{lang|gez|-ቡ}} {{transliteration|gez|-ú}} || {{lang|gez|-ቦ}} {{transliteration|gez|-ó}} || {{lang|gez|-ቢሁ}} {{transliteration|gez|-ihú}}
|-
! <small>feminine</small>
| colspan="2" | {{lang|gez|-ሃ}} {{transliteration|gez|-hā́}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|gez|-ባ}} {{transliteration|gez|-ā́}} || {{lang|gez|-ቢሃ}} {{transliteration|gez|-ihā́}}
|-
! rowspan="5" | <small>Plural</small>
! colspan="2" | <small>1st person</small>
| colspan="2" | {{lang|gez|-ነ}} {{transliteration|gez|-na}} || {{lang|gez|-ብነ}} {{transliteration|gez|-ə́na}} || {{lang|gez|-በነ}} {{transliteration|gez|-ána}} || {{lang|gez|-ቢነ}} {{transliteration|gez|-ína}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | <small>2nd person</small>
! <small>masculine</small>
| colspan="2" | {{lang|gez|-ክሙ}} {{transliteration|gez|-kə́mu}} || {{lang|gez|-ብክሙ}} {{transliteration|gez|-əkə́mu}} || {{lang|gez|-በክሙ}} {{transliteration|gez|-akə́mu}} || {{lang|gez|-ቢክሙ}} {{transliteration|gez|-ikə́mu}}
|-
! <small>feminine</small>
| colspan="2" | {{lang|gez|-ክን}} {{transliteration|gez|-kə́n}} || {{lang|gez|-ብክን}} {{transliteration|gez|-əkə́n}} || {{lang|gez|-በክን}} {{transliteration|gez|-akə́n}} || {{lang|gez|-ቢክን}} {{transliteration|gez|-ikə́n}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | <small>3rd person</small>
! <small>masculine</small>
| colspan="2" | {{lang|gez|-ሆሙ}} {{transliteration|gez|-hómu}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|gez|-ቦሙ}} {{transliteration|gez|-ómu}} || {{lang|gez|-ቢሆሙ}} {{transliteration|gez|-ihómu}}
|-
! <small>feminine</small>
| colspan="2" | {{lang|gez|-ሆን}} {{transliteration|gez|-hón}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|gez|-ቦን}} {{transliteration|gez|-ón}} || {{lang|gez|-ቢሆን}} {{transliteration|gez|-ihón}}
|}
{{notelist}}

=== Verb conjugation ===

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" colspan="3" | Person
! rowspan="2" | Perfect<br />{{transliteration|gez|qatal-nn}}
! colspan="2" | Imperfect
|-
! Indicative<br />{{transliteration|gez|-qattəl}}
! Jussive<br />{{transliteration|gez|-qtəl}}
|-
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | 1st person
! <small>singular</small>
| {{transliteration|gez|qatal-ku}}
| {{transliteration|gez|ʾə-qattəl}}
| {{transliteration|gez|ʾə-qtəl}}
|-
! <small>plural</small>
| {{transliteration|gez|qatal-na}}
| {{transliteration|gez|nə-qattəl}}
| {{transliteration|gez|nə-qtəl}}
|-
! rowspan="4" | 2nd<br />person
! rowspan="2" | <small>masculine</small>
! <small>singular</small>
| {{transliteration|gez|qatal-ka}}
| {{transliteration|gez|tə-qattəl}}
| {{transliteration|gez|tə-qtəl}}
|-
! <small>plural</small>
| {{transliteration|gez|qatal-kəmmu}}
| {{transliteration|gez|tə-qattəl-u}}
| {{transliteration|gez|tə-qtəl-u}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | <small>feminine</small>
! <small>singular</small>
| {{transliteration|gez|qatal-ki}}
| {{transliteration|gez|tə-qattəl-i}}
| {{transliteration|gez|tə-qtəl-i}}
|-
! <small>plural</small>
| {{transliteration|gez|qatal-kən}}
| {{transliteration|gez|tə-qattəl-ā}}
| {{transliteration|gez|tə-qtəl-ā}}
|-
! rowspan="4" | 3rd<br />person
! rowspan="2" | <small>masculine</small>
! <small>singular</small>
| {{transliteration|gez|qatal-a}}
| {{transliteration|gez|yə-qattəl}}
| {{transliteration|gez|yə-qtəl}}
|-
! <small>plural</small>
| {{transliteration|gez|qatal-u}}
| {{transliteration|gez|yə-qattəl-u}}
| {{transliteration|gez|yə-qtəl-u}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | <small>feminine</small>
! <small>singular</small>
| {{transliteration|gez|qatal-at}}
| {{transliteration|gez|tə-qattəl}}
| {{transliteration|gez|tə-qtəl}}
|-
! <small>plural</small>
| {{transliteration|gez|qatal-ā}}
| {{transliteration|gez|yə-qattəl-ā}}
| {{transliteration|gez|yə-qtəl-ā}}
|}