Editing Franco-Prussian War (section)

==Prussian Army advance==

===Battle of Wissembourg===

{{main|Battle of Wissembourg (1870)}}

[[File:Uniform-Bilder Königlich Bayerisches Infanterie-Regiment Großherzog Ernst Ludwig von Hessen 007.jpg|thumb|Bavarian infantry at the Battle of Wissembourg, 1870]]
Upon learning from captured Prussian soldiers and a local area police chief that the Prussian Crown Prince's Third Army was just {{convert|30|mi|km}} north from [[Saarbrücken]] near the Rhine river town Wissembourg, General Le Bœuf and Napoleon III decided to retreat to defensive positions. General Frossard, without instructions, hastily withdrew his elements of the Army of the Rhine in Saarbrücken back across the river to [[Spicheren]] and Forbach.{{sfn|Wawro|2003|p=95}}

Marshal MacMahon, now closest to Wissembourg, spread his four divisions {{convert|20|mi|km}} to react to any Prussian-Bavarian invasion. This organization was due to a lack of supplies, forcing each division to seek out food and forage from the countryside and from the representatives of the army supply arm that was supposed to furnish them with provisions. What made a bad situation much worse was the conduct of General [[Auguste-Alexandre Ducrot]], commander of the 1st Division. He told General [[Abel Douay]], commander of the 2nd Division, on 1 August that ''"The information I have received makes me suppose that the enemy has no considerable forces very near his advance posts, and has no desire to take the offensive"''.{{sfn|Howard|1991|pp=100–101}} Two days later, he told MacMahon that he had not found ''"a single enemy post&nbsp;... it looks to me as if the menace of the Bavarians is simply bluff"''. Even though Ducrot shrugged off the possibility of an attack by the Germans, MacMahon tried to warn his other three division commanders, without success.{{sfn|Howard|1991|p=101}}

The first action of the Franco-Prussian War took place on 4 August 1870. This battle saw the unsupported division of General Douay of I Corps, with some attached cavalry, which was posted to watch the border, attacked in overwhelming but uncoordinated fashion by the German 3rd Army. During the day, elements of a Bavarian and two Prussian corps became engaged and were aided by Prussian artillery, which blasted holes in the city defenses. Douay held a very strong position initially, thanks to the accurate long-range rapid fire of the Chassepot rifles, but his force was too thinly stretched to hold it. Douay was killed in the late morning when a [[caisson (military)|caisson]] of the divisional mitrailleuse battery exploded near him; the encirclement of the town by the Prussians then threatened the French avenue of retreat.{{sfn|Wawro|2003|pp=97–98, 101}}

The fighting within the town had become extremely intense, becoming a door to door battle of survival. Despite an unceasing attack from Prussian infantry, the soldiers of the 2nd Division kept to their positions. The people of the town of Wissembourg finally surrendered to the Germans. The French troops who did not surrender retreated westward, leaving behind {{nowrap|1,000 dead}} and wounded and another {{nowrap|1,000 prisoners}} and all of their remaining ammunition.{{sfn|Wawro|2003|pp=101–103}} The final attack by the Prussian troops also cost {{circa|1,000 casualties.}} The German cavalry then failed to pursue the French and lost touch with them. The attackers had an initial superiority of numbers, a broad deployment which made envelopment highly likely but the effectiveness of French Chassepot-rifle fire inflicted costly repulses on infantry attacks, until the French infantry had been extensively bombarded by the Prussian artillery.{{sfn|Howard|1991|pp=101–103}}

===Battle of Spicheren===
{{main|Battle of Spicheren}}
[[File:FrancoPrussianWar5to6Aug1870.jpg|thumb|Map of the Prussian and German offensives, 5–6 August 1870]]

The Battle of Spicheren on 5 August was the second of three critical French defeats. Moltke had originally planned to keep Bazaine's army on the Saar River until he could attack it with the 2nd Army in front and the 1st Army on its left flank, while the 3rd Army closed towards the rear. The aging General von Steinmetz made an overzealous, unplanned move, leading the 1st Army south from his position on the [[Moselle]]. He moved straight toward the town of Spicheren, cutting off [[Prince Frederick Charles]] from his forward cavalry units in the process.{{sfn|Wawro|2003|p=108}}

On the French side, planning after the disaster at Wissembourg had become essential. General Le Bœuf, flushed with anger, was intent upon going on the offensive over the Saar and countering their loss. However, planning for the next encounter was more based upon the reality of unfolding events rather than emotion or pride, as Intendant General Wolff told him and his staff that supply beyond the Saar would be impossible. Therefore, the armies of France would take up a defensive position that would protect against every possible attack point, but also left the armies unable to support each other.{{sfn|Howard|1991|pp=87–88}}

While the French army under General MacMahon engaged the German 3rd Army at the [[Battle of Wörth]], the German 1st Army under Steinmetz finished their advance west from Saarbrücken. A patrol from the German 2nd Army under Prince Friedrich Karl of Prussia spotted decoy fires nearby and Frossard's army farther off on a distant plateau south of the town of Spicheren, and took this as a sign of Frossard's retreat. Ignoring Moltke's plan again, both German armies attacked Frossard's French 2nd Corps, fortified between Spicheren and Forbach.{{sfn|Howard|1991|pp=89–90}}

The French were unaware of German numerical superiority at the beginning of the battle as the German 2nd Army did not attack all at once. Treating the oncoming attacks as merely skirmishes, Frossard did not request additional support from other units. By the time he realized what kind of a force he was opposing, it was too late. Seriously flawed communications between Frossard and those in reserve under Bazaine slowed down so much that by the time the reserves received orders to move out to Spicheren, German soldiers from the 1st and 2nd armies had charged up the heights.{{sfn|Howard|1991|pp=92–93}} Because the reserves had not arrived, Frossard erroneously believed that he was in grave danger of being outflanked, as German soldiers under General von Glume were spotted in Forbach. Instead of continuing to defend the heights, by the close of battle after dusk he retreated to the south. The German casualties were relatively high due to the advance and the effectiveness of the Chassepot rifle. They were quite startled in the morning when they had found out that their efforts were not in vain—Frossard had abandoned his position on the heights.{{sfn|Howard|1991|pp=98–99}}

===Battle of Wörth===

{{main|Battle of Wörth}}

The Battle of Wörth began when the two armies clashed again on 6 August near [[Wœrth|Wörth]] in the town of [[Frœschwiller]], about {{convert|10|mi|km}} from [[Wissembourg]]. The Crown Prince of Prussia's 3rd army had, on the quick reaction of his Chief of Staff General von Blumenthal, drawn reinforcements which brought its strength up to 140,000 troops. The French had been slowly reinforced and their force numbered only 35,000. Although badly outnumbered, the French defended their position just outside Frœschwiller. By afternoon, the Germans had suffered {{circa|10,500 killed}} or wounded and the French had lost a similar number of casualties and another {{circa|9,200 men}} taken prisoner, a loss of about 50%. The Germans captured Fröschwiller which sat on a hilltop in the centre of the French line. Having lost any hope for victory and facing a massacre, the French army disengaged and retreated in a westerly direction towards Bitche and Saverne, hoping to join French forces on the other side of the [[Vosges|Vosges mountains]]. The German 3rd army did not pursue the French but remained in Alsace and moved slowly south, attacking and destroying the French garrisons in the vicinity.{{sfn|Howard|1979|pp=108–117}}
<!--not covered by the reference to Howard p. 116 The battle of Wörth was the first major battle of the Franco-German war, with more than 100,000 troops in the battlefield. It was also one of the first clashes where troops from various German states (Prussians, Badeners, Bavarians, Saxons, etc.) fought jointly. These facts have led some historians to call the battlefield of Wörth the "cradle of Germany".{{sfn|Howard|1991|p=116}}-->

===Battle of Mars-La-Tour===

{{main|Battle of Mars-La-Tour}}

[[File:Battle of Mars-La-Tour, August 16,1870 by Emil Hünten.jpg|thumb|Heinrich XVII, Prince Reuss, on the side of the 5th Squadron I Guards Dragoon Regiment at Mars-la-Tour, 16 August 1870. [[Emil Hünten]], 1902]]
About 160,000 French soldiers were besieged in the fortress of Metz following the defeats on the frontier. A retirement from Metz to link up with French forces at Châlons was ordered on 15 August and spotted by a Prussian cavalry patrol under Major Oskar von Blumenthal. Next day a grossly outnumbered Prussian force of 30,000 men of III Corps (of the 2nd Army) under General [[Constantin von Alvensleben]], found the French Army near Vionville, east of Mars-la-Tour.{{sfn|Howard|1979|p=145}}

Despite odds of four to one, the III Corps launched a risky attack. The French were routed and the III Corps captured Vionville, blocking any further escape attempts to the west. Once blocked from retreat, the French in the fortress of Metz had no choice but to engage in a fight that would see the last major cavalry engagement in Western Europe. The battle soon erupted, and III Corps was shattered by incessant [[cavalry charge]]s, losing over half its soldiers. The German Official History recorded {{nowrap|15,780 casualties}} and French casualties of {{nowrap|13,761 men.}}{{sfn|Howard|1979|pp=152–161}}

On 16 August, the French had a chance to sweep away the key Prussian defense, and to escape. Two Prussian corps had attacked the French advance guard, thinking that it was the rearguard of the retreat of the French Army of the Meuse. Despite this misjudgment the two Prussian corps held the entire French army for the whole day. Outnumbered 5 to 1, the extraordinary élan of the Prussians prevailed over gross indecision by the French. The French had lost the opportunity to win a decisive victory.{{sfn|Howard|1979|pp=160–163}}

=== Battle of Gravelotte ===
{{unreferenced section|date=July 2016}}

{{main|Battle of Gravelotte}}

[[File:Ernst Zimmer - Das Lauenburgische Jäger-Bataillon Nr. 9 bei Gravelotte.jpg|thumb|The "Rifle Battalion 9 from Lauenburg" at Gravelotte]]
The Battle of Gravelotte, or Gravelotte–St. Privat (18 August), was the largest battle in the Franco-Prussian War. It was fought about {{convert|6|mi|km}} west of Metz, where on the previous day, having intercepted the French army's retreat to the west at the Battle of Mars-La-Tour, the Prussians were now closing in to complete the destruction of the French forces. The combined German forces, under Field Marshal Count Helmuth von Moltke, were the Prussian First and Second Armies of the North German Confederation numbering about 210 infantry battalions, 133 cavalry squadrons, and 732 artillery pieces totaling 188,332 officers and men. The French Army of the Rhine, commanded by Marshal François-Achille Bazaine, numbering about 183 infantry battalions, 104 cavalry squadrons, backed by 520 artillery pieces, totaling 112,800 officers and men, dug in along high ground with their southern left flank at the town of [[Rozérieulles]], and their northern right flank at [[Saint-Privat-la-Montagne|St. Privat]].

On 18 August, the battle began when at 08:00 Moltke ordered the First and Second Armies to advance against the French positions. The French were dug in with trenches and rifle pits with their artillery and their mitrailleuses in concealed positions. Backed by artillery fire, Steinmetz's VII and VIII Corps launched attacks across the Mance ravine, all of which were defeated by French rifle and mitrailleuse firepower, forcing the two German corps' to withdraw to Rezonville. The Prussian [[1st Guards Infantry Division (German Empire)|1st Guards Infantry Division]] assaulted French-held St. Privat and was pinned down by French fire from rifle pits and trenches. The Second Army under Prince Frederick Charles used its artillery to pulverize the French position at St. Privat. His XII Corps took the town of Roncourt and helped the Guard conquer St. Privat, while [[Eduard von Fransecky]]'s II Corps advanced across the Mance ravine. The fighting died down at 22:00.

The next morning the French Army of the Rhine retreated to Metz where they were besieged and forced to surrender two months later. A grand total of 20,163 German troops were killed, wounded or missing in action during the August 18 battle. The French losses were 7,855 killed and wounded along with 4,420 prisoners of war (half of them were wounded) for a total of 12,275.

===Siege of Metz===

{{main|Siege of Metz (1870)}}

[[File:Freyberg – Übergabe von Metz.jpg|thumb|Surrender of Metz]]
With the defeat of Marshal Bazaine's Army of the Rhine at Gravelotte, the French retreated to Metz, where they were besieged by over 150,000 Prussian troops of the First and Second Armies. Further military operations on the part of the army under Bazaine's command have drawn numerous criticisms from historians against its commander. It was later stated with derogatory irony that his occupation at that time was writing orders on hygiene and discipline, as well as playing dominoes.{{sfn|Wawro|2003|p=196}} Bazaine's surprising inactivity was a great relief to Moltke, who now had time to improve his lines around Metz and intensify the hunt for MacMahon.{{sfn|Wawro|2003|p=201}}

At this time, Napoleon III and MacMahon formed the new French [[Army of Châlons]] to march on to Metz to rescue Bazaine. Napoleon III personally led the army with Marshal MacMahon in attendance. The Army of Châlons marched northeast towards the Belgian border to avoid the Prussians before striking south to link up with Bazaine. The Prussians took advantage of this maneuver to catch the French in a pincer grip. Moltke left the Prussian First and Second Armies besieging Metz, except three corps detached to form the Army of the Meuse under the Crown Prince of Saxony. With this army and the Prussian Third Army, Moltke marched northward and caught up with the French at Beaumont on 30 August. After a sharp fight in which they lost 5,000 men and 40 cannons, the French withdrew toward Sedan. Having reformed in the town, the Army of Châlons was immediately isolated by the converging Prussian armies. Napoleon III ordered the army to break out of the encirclement immediately. With MacMahon wounded on the previous day, General Auguste Ducrot took command of the French troops in the field.

===Battle of Sedan===

{{main|Battle of Sedan}}

[[File:BismarckundNapoleonIII.jpg|thumb|[[Napoleon III of France|Napoleon III]] and [[Otto von Bismarck|Bismarck]] talk after Napoleon's capture at the [[Battle of Sedan]], by [[Wilhelm Camphausen]]]]
On 1 September 1870, the battle opened with the [[Army of Châlons]], with 202 infantry battalions, 80 cavalry squadrons and 564 guns, attacking the surrounding Prussian Third and Meuse Armies totaling 222 infantry battalions, 186 cavalry squadrons and 774 guns. General [[Emmanuel Félix de Wimpffen]], the commander of the French V Corps in reserve, hoped to launch a combined infantry and cavalry attack against the Prussian XI Corps. But by 11:00, Prussian artillery took a toll on the French while more Prussian troops arrived on the battlefield. The struggle in the conditions of encirclement turned out to be absolutely impossible for the French—their front was shot through with artillery fire from three sides. The French cavalry, commanded by [[Jean Auguste Margueritte|General Margueritte]], launched three desperate attacks on the nearby village of [[Floing, Ardennes|Floing]] where the Prussian XI Corps was concentrated. Margueritte was mortally wounded leading the very first charge, dying 4 days later, and the two additional charges led to nothing but heavy losses. By the end of the day, with no hope of breaking out, Napoleon III called off the attacks. The French lost over 17,000 men, killed or wounded, with 21,000 captured. The Prussians reported their losses at 2,320 killed, 5,980 wounded and 700 captured or missing. By the next day, on 2 September, Napoleon III surrendered and was taken prisoner with 104,000 of his soldiers. It was an overwhelming victory for the Prussians, who had captured an entire French army and the leader of France. They subsequently paraded the defeated French army in view of the besieged army in Metz, which had an impact on the morale of the defenders. The defeat of the French at Sedan had decided the war in Prussia's favour. One French army was now immobilised and besieged in the city of Metz, and nothing was preventing a Prussian invasion.{{sfn|Wawro|2003|p=240}} This defeat was humiliating for the already morally defeated French army and paved the way for the [[Siege of Paris (1870–1871)|Siege of Paris]].

===Surrender of Metz===

Bazaine, a well-known Bonapartist, at this time allowed himself to be carried away by illusory plans for a political role in France. Unconventional military plans were put forth (by which the Germans would allow the army under Bazaine's command to withdraw from the fortress of Metz to retreat to the south of France, where it would remain until the German armies captured Paris) which were to eliminate the political usurpers and make room for the legitimate imperial authorities with the support of Bazaine's army.{{sfn|Wawro|2003|p=244}} Even ignoring moral issues and potential public outcry, this plan seems completely unrealistic. Bismarck and Moltke answered Bazaine's offer of "cooperation" against the "republican menace" with an indifferent shrug.{{sfn|Wawro|2003|p=247}} The German press, undoubtedly at the instigation of Bismarck, widely covered this topic, and reported the details of Bazaine's negotiations. The French press could only remain completely silent on this issue. With whom Bazaine negotiated still raises questions among historians. "For a decade, the French were considered him (M. Edmond Regnier) a sinister figure, almost certainly an agent of Bismarck. They would have been more justified in thinking him a buffoon".<ref>Howard, Michael (2001) [1961]. ''The Franco-Prussian War: The German Invasion of France 1870–1871''. New York: Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-26671-8}}</ref> Undoubtedly, the politically motivated actions of Commander Bazaine led to the passivity of the encircled army at Metz and contributed to the defeat of not only this army, but the country as a whole. Bazaine's army surrendered on 26 October. 173,000 people surrendered, with the Prussians capturing the huge amount of military equipment located in Metz. After the war, Marshal Bazaine was convicted by a French military court.