Editing First Triumvirate (section)

=== Caesar's consulship, 59&nbsp;BC ===

==== Agrarian law ====
It was well known prior to Caesar's assumption of the consulship with the new year that he would propose a ''[[lex agraria]]''.{{sfn|Millar|1998|p=123–24}} With powerful and secret political allies, Caesar started his consulship of 59&nbsp;BC relatively traditionally. After ordering that minutes of the senate's debates be published, he published a draft proposal for a ''[[lex Julia agraria]]'' and set it on the senate's agenda.{{sfn|Wiseman|1992|p=368}} He took a conciliatory approach, respecting the normal order of the senate and also writing a bill that rectified all the criticisms to Rullus' land bill in 63&nbsp;BC (Cicero opposed that bill in ''De lege agraria''): Caesar would preserve public lands in Campania, repopulate desolate areas of Italy, move citizens from Rome onto the land (reducing the chance of riots), distribute credit for the bill among twenty commissioners (of which Caesar was not to be one), purchase property for redistribution only from willing sellers based on censorial assessments, pay for the entire project from monies won by Pompey, and extend the land grants to Pompey's veterans in return for their service.{{sfn|Wiseman|1992|pp=368–69}}{{sfn|Morstein-Marx|2021|p=122}}

Caesar had the bill read out line-by-line and promised to make any changes needed to receive the assent of the senate.{{sfn|Morstein-Marx|2021|p=124}} Little reasoned opposition emerged. In general, that an agrarian bill was desirable and "well justified... could not reasonably be denied... many senators must have felt that it was not high time to make good on the promise made long ago to the long-suffering veterans".{{sfn|Morstein-Marx|2021|pp=121–22}} Some ancient sources describe Caesar's conciliatory tone as a cynical plot to roll over the senators; Caesar's goal may have been to provide the senators an opportunity to "adopt symbolic leadership and demonstrate its solicitude for the interests... of the people... [giving] the body a chance to co-opt the cause of agrarian legislation in its own favour".{{sfn|Morstein-Marx|2021|pp=126, 129}}

[[File:Cato Volubilis bronze bust.jpg|thumb|Bust of [[Cato the Younger]], one of the men who successfully stymied the plans of all of the three allies in the years before their alliance.]]

Whether a cynical ploy or not, the senate voiced little opposition until the speaking order eventually wound its way to Cato;{{sfn|Mouritsen|2017|pp=149, 150}} Cato immediately started a filibuster, arguing instead that the people would be too gracious to Caesar for bringing the bill and that the current situation was fine.{{sfn|Tatum|2006|p=199}}{{sfn|Drogula|2019|p=129}} The extent to which Caesar's prestige during his first consulship was a topic of debate is unclear; the later sources may here be injecting their knowledge of Caesar's later victories into the narrative.{{sfn|Morstein-Marx|2021|p=124-25}} Caesar, seeking to break the filibuster, therefore threatened to have Cato sent to the ''carcer'', Rome's small jail, which elicited mass indignation from the senators.{{sfn|Millar|1998|p=126}}{{sfn|Drogula|2019|p=130}} In doing so, Cato succeeded in provoking Caesar into giving credence to Cato's claims that Caesar was a would-be tyrant.{{sfn|Drogula|2019|pp=131 (provoking Caesar), 129 (Cato's claims)}} Recognising the mistake, Caesar quickly had Cato released.{{sfn|Drogula|2019|p=131}} After facing these hurdles in the senate, Caesar moved to bring the agrarian law before the people on his own authority, without senatorial consent.{{sfn|Morstein-Marx|2021|p=130}}

Moving to the forum, Caesar summoned a ''contio'' (a meeting wherein a magistrate would address the people) where he requested Bibulus explain his opposition. When Bibulus failed to articulate any meaningful objections, beyond that "he would not permit any innovation", Caesar pled with him before the people,{{sfn|Morstein-Marx|2021|p=131}} leading Bibulus to exclaim in frustration that "you will not have this law this year, not even should you all want it!",<ref>{{harvnb|Drogula|2019|p=132|ps=, citing Dio 38.4.3.}}</ref> a violation of the norm of popular sovereignty.<ref>{{harvnb|Morstein-Marx|2021|pp=131–32|ps=, explaining, "consuls had no recognised right of veto over legislation... nor was the mere lack of prior formal approval by the senate valid grounds for a veto... occasionally[, magistrates] did have to be reminded that the people, not the senate, held the power of decision over key issues of legislation and election, but on known occasions where this occurred, they swiftly conceded" (commas introduced).}}</ref> Seeking to avoid a tribunician veto, Caesar exposed his alliance, summoning Pompey and Crassus. Pompey, when asked what he would do if opponents should use violence to disrupt the bill's passage, said "he would provide a shield if anyone dared to raise a sword in opposition".<ref>{{harvnb|Morstein-Marx|2021|pp=134–35|ps=, also dismissing reports from Plutarch that Pompey "filled the city with soldiers and controlled everything by violence" (Plut. ''Pomp.'' 48.1).}}</ref> Bibulus responded by mobilising three tribunes{{efn|The three tribunes with Bibulus were [[Quintus Ancharius (praetor 56 BC)|Quintus Ancharius]], [[Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus]], and [[Gaius Fannius]].{{sfnm|Morstein-Marx|2021|1p=137 n. 74|Broughton|1952|2p=189}} }} to veto the bill (alternatively, he may have wanted to declare bad omens to prevent voting, or both).{{sfn|Morstein-Marx|2021|pp=136–37}} During the attempt, he was assaulted by a mob, which threw him from the rostra and broke his ''fasces'', symbolically rejecting Bibulus' consular authority.{{sfn|Morstein-Marx|2021|p=138}} The law was then passed; the next day, Bibulus called a meeting of the senate seeking to annul the law on grounds that it was passed contrary to the auspices and with violence; annulment on such grounds was extremely rare and the senate, regardless, refused.<ref>{{harvnb|Morstein-Marx|2021|p=140|ps=, dismissing Dio's claim that the senators were "enslaved to the multitude" (Dio 38.6.4) as rather reflecting senatorial deference to the clear will of the people.}}</ref>{{sfn|Wiseman|1992|p=371}} Caesar "provocatively demanded from the senate an oath of obedience to the law and got it" after some pushing and resistance from Cato and some of his allies.{{sfnm|Wiseman|1992|1p=371|Drogula|2019|2pp=135–36}}

==== Laws for Pompey and Crassus ====
Some time after passage of the agrarian bill, Bibulus withdrew from public business to his home to declare unfavourable omens on all future voting days;{{efn|The effect of declaring unfavourable omens ''in absentia'' was minimal: "It has long been recognised that, in order to be valid... the bad omen... must be announced in person".{{sfn|Morstein-Marx|2021|p=144 n. 108}} "The embarassing effect for those who treat Bibulus' attempted ''servatio'' as if it ought to have been decisive... is that we have ''no'' well-attested instance ''ever'' of the successful use of the practice to prevent or to retroactive annul legislation".{{sfn|Morstein-Marx|2021|p=145|ps=&nbsp;(emphasis in original).}} }} the specific time in the year he did so, however, is not known.{{sfn|Morstein-Marx|2021|pp=142 et seq}} Caesar moved two further bills, first, for ratification of a one-third write-down of the tax bills owed by the ''publicani'' for Crassus, and second, for ratification of Pompey's eastern settlement. Both bills were passed with little or no debate in the senate.{{sfn|Wiseman|1992|p=372}} Lucullus, attempting to oppose Pompey's eastern settlement, was "forced into public humiliation on his knees before Caesar" when the consul threatened prosecution.{{sfnm|Drogula|2019|1p=137|Wiseman|1992|2p=372}} When Cicero, defending his former co-consul [[Gaius Antonius Hybrida]], made an off-hand remark complaining about the political situation, his "deadly enemy [[Publius Clodius Pulcher|P. Clodius]] [had] his long-obstructed 'transition' to the plebs rushed through by Caesar... in good time to stand for the tribunate".{{sfnm|Wiseman|1992|1p=372|Gruen|1995|2p=98}}<ref>{{harvnb|Gruen|1966|p=122|ps=, pinpointing Caesar's reaction to Cicero's public lamentation of the "sad circumstances of contemporary public life" as the inciting incident in Caesar's ratification of Clodius' ''transitio ad plebem''. This was early in the year; by April, Caesar was having second thoughts. {{harvnb|Gruen|1966|p=123}}. }}</ref>

Caesar then moved to lift the exemption of Campania from his agrarian bill some time in May; its passage may have proved the last straw for Bibulus, who then withdrew to his house.{{sfn|Morstein-Marx|2021|pp=143 (Bibulus), 147 (dating to May)}} Pompey, shortly thereafter, also wed Caesar's daughter Julia to seal their alliance.{{sfn|Wiseman|1992|p=374}} An ally of Caesar's, [[Publius Vatinius]] (then-plebeian tribune), also secured the passage of [[Lex Vatinia|a law]] granting to Caesar the provinces of Illyricum and Cisalpine Gaul for five years.{{sfn|Drogula|2019|p=137}} Doing so replaced Caesar's assigned province of the woods and paths of Italy with Gaul; this was in response to growing tensions between the republic and the recent victors of a power struggle in Gaul, which had destabilised the geopolitical situation in the region.{{sfn|Morstein-Marx|2021|pp=172–75, 177–78, 180}} After the death of the governor of Transalpine Gaul – one of Cato's allies – the senate was persuaded also to assign to Caesar that province as well.{{sfn|Morstein-Marx|2021|p=176}}{{sfn|Drogula|2019|pp=137–38}} Both bills were met with little resistance, likely due to Cato and his allies' boycotting of public business.{{sfn|Drogula|2019|p=137}}

==== Popular opinion turns ====
By the summer, however, popular opinion had started to turn against Caesar's methods.{{sfn|Morstein-Marx|2021|p=148}} Pompey also was distancing himself from Caesar.{{sfn|Wiseman|1992|p=374}} This was in part due to the success to Cato and Bibulus' campaign: Bibulus' choice to confine himself to his home "presented the image of the city dominated by one man's sole power, unchecked by a colleague".{{sfn|Morstein-Marx|2021|p=151}} Pompey and Caesar attempted public protests against Bibulus' edicts and seclusion, respectively, to little response from the people. By then, the popular fervour of the agrarian bills had died down and the public likely desired a return to normal politics.{{sfn|Morstein-Marx|2021|p=152}}

The ancient sources claimed that for most of the year, the senate was not called and that the people and senators were intimidated and cowed into passing whatever the three allies put before them.{{sfn|Morstein-Marx|2021|p=155}} These claims are incompatible with the attested events of that year.<ref>{{harvnb|Morstein-Marx|2021|pp=155–63}}, explaining:
* While Cato may have boycotted, there was no indication that Cicero or other moderates did so. While Cicero wrote some letters from this country estates, those were over the normal April break.
* Dio claims that Caesar and his allies could get anything they wanted before a cowed senate, but reports of full and rowdy meetings in which senators were willing to insult Caesar to his face – Suet. ''Iul.'' 22.1 – trend against those claims.
* The [[Vettius affair]] – where an informer accused various conservatives of plotting to murder Pompey – that summer took place before a full senate that was not wholly under Caesar's control; no trials against those named occurred.
* There are no indications in Cicero's later letters implying that Caesar or Pompey used force to intimidate political opponents in 59.</ref> For example, in that year, Caesar's ally Vatinius was defeated in an election to the augurate{{sfn|Morstein-Marx|2021|p=160}} and later elections for the magistracies returned [[Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 54 BC)|Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus]] and [[Gaius Memmius (poet)|Gaius Memmius]], both opponents of Pompey and Caesar, as praetors.{{sfn|Morstein-Marx|2021|pp=165–66}} He was also able to secure election of two allies – one was Caesar's soon-to-be father-in-law ([[Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus (consul 58 BC)|Lucius Calpurnius Piso]]) and the other was Pompey's supporter [[Aulus Gabinius]] – to the consulship.{{sfn|Morstein-Marx|2021|p=165}} Also passed during Caesar's consulship was the [[Lex Iulia de Repetundis|''lex Julia de repetundis'']], which was a wide-ranging reform on corruption in the provinces and before the republic's permanent courts.{{sfn|Morstein-Marx|2021|pp=166–67}}