Editing Edward I of England (section)

===Conquest of Wales===
{{See also|Conquest of Wales by Edward I|Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd}}
[[File:Wales after the Treaty of Montgomery 1267 Colorblind.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|alt=Coloured map depicting Wales (adjacent to the Kingdom of England, coloured dark orange) following the Treaty of Montgomery of 1267. Gwynedd, Llywelyn ap Gruffudd's principality, is green; the territories conquered by Llywelyn are purple; the territories of Llywelyn's vassals are blue; the lordships of the Marcher barons are shown as light orange; and the lordships of the King of England are shown in yellow.|Wales after the [[Treaty of Montgomery]] of 1267:
{{Leftlegend|#009E73|[[Gwynedd]], Llywelyn ap Gruffudd's principality}}
{{Leftlegend|#CC79A7|Territories conquered by [[Llywelyn ap Gruffudd]]}}
{{Leftlegend|#56B4E9|Territories of Llywelyn's vassals}}
{{Leftlegend|#E69F00|Lordships of the [[Marcher barons]]}}
{{Leftlegend|#F0E442|Lordships of the King of England}}
{{Leftlegend|#D55E00|Kingdom of England}}]]
Llywelyn ap Gruffudd enjoyed the advantage after the Barons' War. The 1267 [[Treaty of Montgomery]] recognised his ownership of land he had conquered in the [[Perfeddwlad|Four Cantrefs of Perfeddwlad]] and his title of [[Prince of Wales]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|2004|p=386}}; {{Harvnb|Morris|2009|p=132}}.</ref> Armed conflicts nevertheless continued, in particular with dissatisfied [[Marcher Lords]], such as the Earl of Gloucester, [[Roger Mortimer, 1st Baron Mortimer|Roger Mortimer]] and [[Humphrey de Bohun, 3rd Earl of Hereford]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Davies|2000|pp=322–323}}.</ref> Problems were exacerbated when Llywelyn's younger brother [[Dafydd ap Gruffydd|Dafydd]] and [[Gruffydd ap Gwenwynwyn]] of [[Powys]], after failing to assassinate Llywelyn, defected to the English in 1274.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|p=175}}.</ref> Citing ongoing hostilities and Edward's harbouring of his enemies, Llywelyn refused to do homage to the King.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|pp=174–175}}.</ref> For Edward, a further provocation came from Llywelyn's planned marriage to [[Eleanor de Montfort, Princess of Wales|Eleanor]], daughter of Simon de Montfort the Elder.<ref>{{Harvnb|Davies|2000|p=327}}.</ref>

In November 1276, Edward declared war.<ref>{{Harvnb|Powicke|1962|p=409}}, {{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|p=170}}</ref> Initial operations were under the captaincy of Mortimer, Edward's brother Edmund, Earl of Lancaster, and [[William de Beauchamp, 9th Earl of Warwick]].<ref name=Powicke1962P409/>{{Efn|Lancaster's post was held by Payne de Chaworth until April.<ref name="Powicke1962P409">{{Harvnb|Powicke|1962|p=409}}.</ref>}} Support for Llywelyn was weak among his countrymen.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|2005|p=150}}.</ref> In July 1277 Edward invaded with a force of 15,500, of whom 9,000 were Welsh.<ref name="P151">{{Harvnb|Prestwich|2005|p=151}}.</ref> The campaign never came to a major battle, and Llywelyn realised he had no choice but to surrender.<ref name="P151"/> By the [[Treaty of Aberconwy]] in November 1277, he was left only with the land of [[Gwynedd]], though he was allowed to retain the title of Prince of Wales.<ref>{{Harvnb|Powicke|1962|p=413}}.</ref>

War broke out again in 1282. The Welsh saw the war as being over national identity and the right to traditional Welsh law. This enjoyed wide support, provoked by attempts to abuse the English legal system to dispossess prominent Welsh landowners, many of whom were Edward's former opponents.<ref>{{Harvnb|Davies|1984|pp=51–69}}, {{harvnb|Davies|2000|pp=346–347}}, {{harvnb|Morris|2009|pp=175, 178}}, {{harvnb|Davies|2007|pp=153–154}}, {{harvnb|Prestwich|1997|pp=185-188}}</ref> For Edward, it became a war of conquest aimed to "put an end finally to … the malice of the Welsh".<ref>{{harvnb|Davies|2000|pp=346–347}}, {{harvnb|Morris|2009|pp=175, 178}}, {{harvnb|Prestwich|1997|pp=188-189}}</ref> The war started with a rebellion by Dafydd, who was discontented with the reward he had received in 1277.<ref>{{Harvnb|Davies|2000|p=348}}.</ref> Llywelyn and other Welsh leaders soon joined in, and initially the Welsh attack was successful. In June, Gloucester was defeated at the [[Battle of Llandeilo Fawr]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Morris|2009|p=180}}.</ref> On 6&nbsp;November, while [[John Peckham]], Archbishop of Canterbury, was conducting peace negotiations, Edward's commander of [[Anglesey]], [[Luke de Tany]], carried out a surprise attack. A [[pontoon bridge]] had been built to the mainland, but shortly after Tany and his men crossed over, they were ambushed by the Welsh and suffered heavy losses at the [[Battle of Moel-y-don]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|pp=191–192}}.</ref> The Welsh advances ended on 11&nbsp;December, when Llywelyn was lured into a trap and killed at the [[Battle of Orewin Bridge]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Davies|2000|p=353}}.</ref> The conquest of Gwynedd was complete with the capture in June 1283 of Dafydd, who was taken to [[Shrewsbury]] and executed as a traitor the following year;<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|2004|p=510}}.</ref> Edward ordered Dafydd's head to be publicly exhibited on [[London Bridge]].<ref name= Hamilton69>{{Harvnb|Hamilton|2010|p=69}}.</ref> 

[[File:Caernafon Wards.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.13|alt=View of the wards of Caernarfon Castle, erected during the reign of Edward I in Wales.|[[Caernarfon Castle]], one of the castles erected in Wales during the reign of<br />Edward I]]
By the 1284 [[Statute of Rhuddlan]], the [[principality of Wales]] was incorporated into England and was given an administrative system like the English, with counties policed by sheriffs.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|2004|p=511}}.</ref> English law was introduced in criminal cases; the Welsh were allowed to maintain their own customary laws in some cases of property disputes.<ref>{{Harvnb|Davies|2000|p=368}}.</ref> After 1277, and increasingly after 1283, Edward embarked on a project of English settlement of Wales, creating new towns like [[Flint, Flintshire|Flint]], [[Aberystwyth]] and [[Rhuddlan]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|p=216}}.</ref> Their new residents were English migrants, the local Welsh being banned from living there, and many were protected by extensive walls.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lilley|2010|pp=104–106}}.</ref>{{efn|Clauses in the town charters were also included stating that "Jews shall not sojourn in the borough at any time", both before and after the [[Edict of Expulsion|expulsion]] of the Jews in 1290.<ref>{{harvnb|Hillaby|Hillaby|2013|p=143}}</ref>}} 

An extensive project of castle building was also initiated, under the direction of [[James of Saint George]],<ref name= Hamilton70>{{Harvnb|Hamilton|2010|p=70}}.</ref> a prestigious architect Edward had met in Savoy on his return from the crusade.<ref>{{Harvnb|Coldstream|2010|pp=39–40}}; {{Harvnb|Chancellor|1981|p=116}}.</ref> These included [[Beaumaris Castle|Beaumaris]], [[Caernarfon Castle|Caernarfon]], [[Conwy Castle|Conwy]] and [[Castell Harlech|Harlech]] castles, intended to act as fortresses, royal palaces and as the new centres of civilian and judicial administration.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|p=160}}; {{Harvnb|Brears|2010|p=86}}; {{harvnb|Davies|2000|p=360}}.</ref> His programme of castle building in Wales heralded the widespread introduction of [[arrowslit]]s in castle walls across Europe, drawing on Eastern architectural influences.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cathcart King|1988|p=84}}.</ref> Also a product of the Crusades was the introduction of the [[concentric castle]], and four of the eight castles Edward founded in Wales followed this design.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cathcart King|1988|p=83}}; {{Harvnb|Friar|2003|p=77}}.</ref> The castles drew on imagery associated with the [[Byzantine Empire]] and [[King Arthur]] in an attempt to build legitimacy for his new rule, and they made a clear statement about Edward's intention to rule Wales permanently.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|2010|p=6}}; {{Harvnb|Wheatley|2010|pp=129, 136}}.</ref> The Welsh aristocracy were nearly wholly dispossessed of their lands.<ref>{{harvnb|Davies|2000|pp=361}}</ref> Edward was the greatest beneficiary of this process.<ref>{{harvnb|Davies|2000|pp=362-363}}</ref> Localised rebellions occurred in 1287–88, partly caused by Edward failing to reward former Welsh allies. [[Welsh revolt of 1294–95|A more serious revolt came in 1294]], under the leadership of [[Madog ap Llywelyn]], a distant relative of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|pp=218–220}}.</ref> The causes of the 1294 revolt included resentment at the occupation, poor, colonial-style governance, and very heavy taxation.<ref>{{harvnb|Davies|2000|pp=367, 382-383}}, {{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|pp=216–222, 232}}, {{harvnb|Davies|2007|pp=168-169}}, {{harvnb|Morris|2009|p=196}}</ref> This last conflict demanded the King's attention, but in both cases the rebellions were put down.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|pp=221–225}}, {{Harvnb|Hamilton|2010|p=71}}.</ref> The revolt was followed by immediate punitive measures including taking 200 hostages.<ref>{{harvnb|Davies|2000|p=384}}</ref> Measures to stop the Welsh from bearing arms or living in the new boroughs probably date from this time, and the Welsh administration continued to be nearly wholly imported.<ref>{{harvnb|Davies|2000|p=385}}, {{harvnb|Davies|2007|pp=173-175}}</ref> 

In 1284, King Edward had his son Edward (later [[Edward&nbsp;II]]) born at Caernarfon Castle, probably to make a statement about the new political order in Wales.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=35–36}}; {{Harvnb|Haines|2003|p=3}}.</ref>{{efn|[[David Powel]], a 16th-century clergyman, suggested that the baby was offered to the Welsh as a prince "that was borne in Wales and could speake never a word of English", but there is no evidence to support this widely reported account.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|p=36}}; {{Harvnb|Haines|2003|pp=3–4}}; {{Harvnb|Chancellor|1981|p=206}}.</ref>}} In 1301 at Lincoln, the young Edward became the first English prince to be invested as Prince of Wales, when the King granted him the Earldom of Chester and lands across North Wales, hoping to give his son more financial independence.<ref name="Phillips2011PP85Phillips2004">{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=85–87}}</ref>{{Efn|This title became the traditional title of the [[heir apparent]] to the English throne. Prince Edward was not born heir apparent, but became so when his older brother [[Alphonso, Earl of Chester]], died in 1284.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|pp=126–127}}.</ref>}} Edward began a more conciliatory policy to rebuild systems of patronage and service, particularly through his son as Prince of Wales, but Wales remained politically volatile, and a deep distrust remained between the English settlers and the Welsh.<ref>{{harvnb|Davies|2000|pp=384, 382-383}}, {{harvnb|Davies|2007|pp=173-175}}</ref>