Editing Education (section)

== Factors of educational success ==
Educational success, also referred to as student and academic achievement, pertains to the extent to which educational objectives are met, such as the acquisition of knowledge and skills by students. For practical purposes, it is often primarily measured in terms of official exam scores, but numerous additional indicators exist, including [[attendance]] rates, [[graduation]] rates, [[Dropping out|dropout]] rates, student attitudes, and post-school indicators such as later [[income]] and [[incarceration]] rates.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Schoen|2008|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Bv9yAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT339 301–303]}} | {{harvnb|Karadağ|Bektaş|Çoğaltay|Yalçın|2017|pp=15, 17}} }}</ref> Several factors influence educational achievement, such as [[Psychology|psychological]] factors related to the individual student, and [[Sociology|sociological]] factors associated with the student's social environment. Additional factors encompass access to [[educational technology]], teacher quality, and parental involvement. Many of these factors overlap and mutually influence each other.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Portes|1999|pp=489–491}} |2={{harvnb|Bartlett|Burton|2007|pp=5–6}}  |3={{harvnb|Waller|2011|pp=106–107, 132–133}}  |4={{harvnb|Danişman|2017|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7ifiDgAAQBAJ 271–272]}} |5={{harvnb|Haleem|Javaid|Qadri|Suman|2022|pp=275–276}} |6={{harvnb|Hughes|2009|p=90}}  }}</ref>

=== Psychological ===
On a psychological level, relevant factors include [[motivation]], [[Human intelligence|intelligence]], and personality.<ref>{{harvnb|Bartlett|Burton|2007|pp=96–97}}</ref> Motivation is the internal force propelling people to engage in learning.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Bartlett|Burton|2007|p=107}} |2={{harvnb|Weiner|2000|pp=314–316}} |3={{harvnb|Helms|2006|loc=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/management/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/motivation-and-motivation-theory Motivation and Motivation Theory]}} }}</ref> Motivated students are more likely to interact with the content to be learned by participating in classroom activities like discussions, resulting in a deeper understanding of the subject. Motivation can also help students overcome difficulties and setbacks. An important distinction lies between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsically motivated students are driven by an interest in the subject and the learning experience itself. Extrinsically motivated students seek external rewards such as good grades and recognition from peers. Intrinsic motivation tends to be more beneficial, leading to increased creativity, engagement, and long-term commitment.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Meece|Blumenfeld|Hoyle|1988|pp=[https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.80.4.514 514–515]}} |2={{harvnb|McInerney|2019|pp=427–429}} |3={{harvnb|Honeybourne|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2VxIIj-n8WYC&pg=PA80 80]}} |4={{harvnb|Dhiman|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=thTjDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA39 39]}} }}</ref> Educational psychologists aim to discover methods to increase motivation, such as encouraging healthy competition among students while maintaining a balance of positive and negative feedback through praise and constructive criticism.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Bartlett|Burton|2007|p=107}} |2={{harvnb|Gallard|Garden|2011|pp=132–133}} }}</ref>

Intelligence significantly influences individuals' responses to education. It is a cognitive trait associated with the capacity to learn from experience, comprehend, and apply knowledge and skills to solve problems. Individuals with higher scores in intelligence metrics typically perform better academically and pursue higher levels of education.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Butler|Marsh|Sheppard|1985|pp=349–351}} |2={{harvnb|Sternberg|2022}} |3={{harvnb|Bartlett|Burton|2007|p=109}}  |4={{harvnb|Gallard|Garden|2011|pp=145–147}}  }}</ref> Intelligence is often closely associated with the concept of [[IQ]], a standardized numerical measure assessing intelligence based on mathematical-logical and verbal abilities. However, it has been argued that intelligence encompasses various [[Theory of multiple intelligences|types]] beyond IQ. Psychologist [[Howard Gardner]] posited distinct forms of intelligence in domains such as [[mathematics]], [[logic]], [[spatial cognition]], language, and music. Additional types of intelligence influence interpersonal and intrapersonal interactions. These intelligences are largely autonomous, meaning that an individual may excel in one type while performing less well in another.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Fogarty|Stoehr|2008|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kOr34YoN9OYC&pg=PA6 6–7]}} | {{harvnb|Grigorenko|2008|loc=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences/applied-and-social-sciences-magazines/multiple-intelligences-theory Multiple Intelligences Theory]}} | {{harvnb|O'Brien|Flynn|2007|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=puvbzwaRBnQC&pg=PA73 Emotions, Inequalities and Care in Education]}} }}</ref> 

According to proponents of [[learning style]] theory, the preferred method of acquiring knowledge and skills is another factor. They hold that students with an auditory learning style find it easy to comprehend spoken lectures and discussions, whereas visual learners benefit from information presented visually, such as in diagrams and videos. To facilitate efficient learning, it may be advantageous to incorporate a wide variety of learning modalities.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Bartlett|Burton|2007|pp=130–131}} |2={{harvnb|Page|Page|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8UEuTrErvuAC&pg=PA36 36–37]}} |3={{harvnb|Skowron|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LTWCDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT137 137]}} |4={{harvnb|Willingham|Hughes|Dobolyi|2015|pp=266–267}} |5={{harvnb|Pashler|McDaniel|Rohrer|Bjork|2008|pp=105–106}} }}</ref> Learning styles have been criticized for ambiguous empirical evidence of student benefits and unreliability of student learning style assessment by teachers.<ref>{{multiref| {{harvnb|Rohrer|Pashler|2012|pp=634–635}} | {{harvnb|Papadatou-Pastou|Gritzali|Barrable|2018}} }}</ref>

The learner's personality may also influence educational achievement. For instance, characteristics such as [[conscientiousness]] and [[openness to experience]], identified in the [[Big Five personality traits]], are associated with academic success.<ref>{{harvnb|Verbree|Maas|Hornstra|Wijngaards-de Meij|2021|p=1}}</ref> Other mental factors include [[self-efficacy]], [[self-esteem]], and [[metacognitive]] abilities.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Bartlett|Burton|2007|pp=96–97}} |2={{harvnb|Lane|Lane|Kyprianou|2004|pp=247–248}} }}</ref>

=== Sociological ===
Sociological factors center not on the psychological attributes of learners but on their environment and societal position. These factors encompass [[socioeconomic status]], [[ethnicity]], [[cultural background]], and [[gender]], drawing significant interest from researchers due to their association with inequality and [[discrimination]]. Consequently, they play a pivotal role in policy-making endeavors aimed at mitigating their impact.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Bartlett|Burton|2007|p=17}}  |2={{harvnb|Bécares|Priest|2015|pp=1–2}} |3={{harvnb|Hart|2019|pp=582–583}} |4={{harvnb|Warren|2009|pp=4–5}}  }}</ref>

Socioeconomic status is influenced by factors beyond just [[income]], including [[Economic security|financial security]], [[social status]], [[social class]], and various attributes related to [[quality of life]]. Low socioeconomic status impacts educational success in several ways. It correlates with slower cognitive development in language and memory, as well as higher dropout rates. Families with limited financial means may struggle to meet their children's basic nutritional needs, hindering their development. Additionally, they may lack resources to invest in educational materials such as stimulating toys, books, and computers. Financial constraints may also prevent attendance at prestigious schools, leading to enrollment in institutions located in economically disadvantaged areas. Such schools often face challenges such as teacher shortages and inadequate educational materials and facilities like libraries, resulting in lower teaching standards. Moreover, parents may be unable to afford private lessons for children falling behind academically. In some cases, students from economically disadvantaged backgrounds are compelled to drop out of school to contribute to family income. Limited access to information about higher education and challenges in securing and repaying [[student loans]] further exacerbate the situation. Low socioeconomic status is also associated with poorer physical and [[mental health]], contributing to a cycle of social inequality that persists across generations.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Bartlett|Burton|2007|pp=146–149}} | {{harvnb|Murphy|Mufti|Kassem|2009|p=123}} | {{harvnb|APA staff}} | {{harvnb|Maluccio|Hoddinott|Behrman|Martorell|2009|pp=734–735}}}}</ref>

Ethnic background correlates with cultural distinctions and language barriers, which can pose challenges for students in adapting to the school environment and comprehending classes. Moreover, explicit and implicit biases and discrimination against [[ethnic minorities]] further compound these difficulties. Such biases can impact students' self-esteem, motivation, and access to educational opportunities. For instance, teachers may harbor stereotypical perceptions, albeit not overtly [[racist]], leading to differential grading of comparable performances based on a child's ethnicity.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Murphy|Mufti|Kassem|2009|p=122}}  |2={{harvnb|Archer|Francis|2006|pp=11–12}} |3={{harvnb|Isik|Tahir|Meeter|Heymans|2018|pp=1–2}} |4={{harvnb|Bartlett|Burton|2007|p=166}}  }}</ref>

Historically, gender has played a pivotal role in education as societal norms dictated distinct roles for men and women. Education traditionally favored men, who were tasked with providing for the family, while women were expected to manage households and care for children, often limiting their access to education. Although these disparities have improved in many modern societies, [[gender differences in education|gender differences persist in education]]. This includes [[bias]]es and [[stereotype]]s related to gender roles in various academic domains, notably in fields such as [[science, technology, engineering, and mathematics]] (STEM), which are often portrayed as male-dominated. Such perceptions can deter female students from pursuing these subjects.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Bartlett|Burton|2007|pp=157–161}} |2={{harvnb|Murphy|Mufti|Kassem|2009|p=119}} |3={{harvnb|Sullivan|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=oTWoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 3–7]}} }}</ref> In various instances, discrimination based on gender and social factors occurs openly as part of official educational policies, such as the [[Treatment of women by the Taliban#Education|severe restrictions imposed on female education]] by the [[Taliban]] in [[Afghanistan]],<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Marsden|1998|p=[https://archive.org/details/talibanwarreligi0000mars/page/88/mode/2up 88]}} | {{harvnb|Johnson|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=g2lNDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA74 74]}} }}</ref> and the [[school segregation]] of migrants and locals in urban China under the [[hukou]] system.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Xu|Wu|2022|pp=433–434}} | {{harvnb|Musterd|2023|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7t7oEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA96 96]}} }}</ref>

One facet of several social factors is characterized by the expectations linked to stereotypes. These expectations operate externally, influenced by how others respond to individuals belonging to specific groups, and internally, shaped by how individuals internalize and conform to them. In this regard, these expectations can manifest as [[self-fulfilling prophecies]] by affecting the educational outcomes they predict. Such outcomes may be influenced by both positive and negative stereotypes.<ref>{{harvnb|Murphy|Mufti|Kassem|2009|pp=116, 126–127}}</ref>

=== Technology and others ===
{{See also|Computers in the classroom}}
[[Technology]] plays a crucial role in educational success. While educational technology is often linked with modern digital devices such as computers, its scope extends far beyond that. It encompasses a diverse array of resources and tools for learning, including traditional aids like books and worksheets, in addition to digital devices.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Sampath|1981|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NfhwWGPoV3sC&pg=PA30 30–32]}} |2={{harvnb|Rosove|1973|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=f_kxVhGxQTcC&pg=PA120 120–122]}} }}</ref>

[[File:OLPC Haiti.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Photo of a group of children being introduced to a laptop|Introducing children in Haiti to a [[One Laptop per Child]] device]]

Educational technology can enhance learning in various ways. In the form of media, it often serves as the primary source of information in the classroom, allowing teachers to allocate their time and energy to other tasks such as lesson planning, student guidance, and performance assessment.<ref>{{harvnb|Sampath|1981|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NfhwWGPoV3sC&pg=PA30 30–32]}}</ref> By presenting information using graphics, audio, and video instead of mere text, educational technology can also enhance comprehension. Interactive elements, such as [[educational game]]s, further engage learners in the learning process. Moreover, technology facilitates the accessibility of educational materials to a wide audience, particularly through online resources, while also promoting collaboration among students and communication with teachers.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Williams|Mehlinger|Powers|Baldwin|2003a|loc=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences-and-law/education/education-terms-and-concepts/educational-technology Technology in Education]}} |2={{harvnb|Kimmons|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XRliCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT664 664]}} |3={{harvnb|Haleem|Javaid|Qadri|Suman|2022|pp=275–276}} }}</ref> The integration of [[artificial intelligence]] in education holds promise for providing new learning experiences to students and supporting teachers in their work. However, it also introduces new risks related to [[data privacy]], [[Hallucination (artificial intelligence)|misinformation]], and manipulation.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Gomathi|Mohanavel|2022|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=c3iGEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT29 29–30]}} | {{harvnb|Miao|Holmes|2023|p=7}} }}</ref> Various organizations advocate for student access to educational technologies, including initiatives such as the [[One Laptop per Child]] initiative, the [[African Library Project]], and [[Pratham]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Selwyn|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LVs4z6El6uMC&pg=PA128 128]}} | {{harvnb|Rodriguez-Segura|2022|pp=171–173}} | {{harvnb|Corbridge|Harriss|Jeffrey|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=KJTC6lBm4QkC&pg=PA290 290]}} }}</ref>

School infrastructure also plays a crucial role in educational success. It encompasses physical aspects such as the school's location, size, and available facilities and equipment. A healthy and safe environment, well-maintained classrooms, appropriate classroom furniture, as well as access to a [[School library|library]] and a [[School meal|canteen]], all contribute to fostering educational success.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Figueroa|Lim|Lee|2016|pp=273–276}} |2={{harvnb|Barrett|Treves|Shmis|Ambasz|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Tf6jDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1–2]}} }}</ref> Additionally, the quality of teachers significantly impacts student achievement. Skilled teachers possess the ability to motivate and inspire students, and tailor instructions to individual abilities and needs. Their skills depend on their own education, training, and teaching experience.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Lareau|Ferguson|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=cVxtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT114 114]}} |2={{harvnb|Moore|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gQAVvZMKspsC&pg=PA52 52]}} |3={{harvnb|Winters|2012|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=zwxT1OKJ6zMC&pg=PA16 16–18]}} |4={{harvnb|Burroughs|Gardner|Lee|Guo|2019|pp=[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-16151-4_2 7–9]}} }}</ref> A meta-analysis by Engin Karadağ et al. concludes that, compared to other influences, factors related to the school and the teacher have the greatest impact on educational success.<ref>{{harvnb|Karadağ|2017|pp=325–330}}</ref>

Parent involvement also enhances achievement and can increase children's motivation and commitment when they know their parents are invested in their educational endeavors. This often results in heightened self-esteem, improved attendance rates, and more positive behavior at school. Parent involvement covers communication with teachers and other school staff to raise awareness of current issues and explore potential resolutions.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Danişman|2017|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7ifiDgAAQBAJ 271–272]}} |2={{harvnb|Schmid|Garrels|2021|pp=456–458}} |3={{harvnb|Shute|Hansen|Underwood|Razzouk|2011|pp=1–3}} }}</ref> Other relevant factors, occasionally addressed in academic literature, encompass historical, political, demographic, religious, and legal aspects.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Hughes|2009|p=90}} |2={{harvnb|Horwitz|2021|pp=107–109}} }}</ref>