Editing Dwight D. Eisenhower (section)

== World War II (1939–1945) ==
Eisenhower returned to the United States in December 1939 and was assigned as [[commanding officer]] of the 1st Battalion, [[15th Infantry Regiment (United States)|15th Infantry Regiment]] at [[Fort Lewis (Washington)|Fort Lewis]], Washington, later becoming the regimental executive officer. In March 1941 he was promoted to colonel and assigned as chief of staff of the newly activated [[IX Corps (United States)|IX Corps]] under Major General [[Kenyon Joyce]]. In June 1941, he was appointed chief of staff to General [[Walter Krueger]], Commander of the [[United States Army Central|Third Army]], at Fort Sam Houston in San Antonio, Texas. After successfully participating in the [[Louisiana Maneuvers]], he was promoted to brigadier general on October 3, 1941.<ref>Korda (2007), pp&nbsp;239–243</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dwightdeisenhower.com/general.html |title=The Eisenhowers: The General |website=Dwightdeisenhower.com |access-date=May 3, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101230101757/http://www.dwightdeisenhower.com/general.html |archive-date=December 30, 2010 }}</ref>

After the [[attack on Pearl Harbor|Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor]], Eisenhower was assigned to the General Staff in [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]], where he served until June 1942 with responsibility for creating the major war plans to defeat Japan and Germany. He was appointed Deputy Chief in charge of Pacific Defenses under the Chief of War Plans Division (WPD), General [[Leonard T. Gerow]], and then succeeded Gerow as Chief of the War Plans Division. Next, he was appointed Assistant Chief of Staff in charge of the new Operations Division (which replaced WPD) under Chief of Staff General George C. Marshall, who spotted talent and promoted accordingly.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983}}</ref>

At the end of May 1942, Eisenhower accompanied Lt. Gen. [[Henry H. Arnold]], commanding general of the [[United States Army Air Forces|Army Air Forces]], to London to assess the effectiveness of the theater commander in England, Maj. Gen. [[James E. Chaney]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.af.mil/About-Us/Biographies/Display/Article/107447/major-general-james-e-chaney/ |title=Major General James E. Chaney |work=Air Force |access-date=August 16, 2017 |publisher=U.S. Air Force |quote=From January 1942 to June 1942, he was the commanding general, U.S. Army Forces in the British Isles. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613062541/http://www.af.mil/About-Us/Biographies/Display/Article/107447/major-general-james-e-chaney/ |archive-date=June 13, 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> He returned to Washington on June 3 with a pessimistic assessment, stating he had an "uneasy feeling" about Chaney and his staff. On June 23, 1942, he returned to London as Commanding General, [[European Theater of Operations]] (ETOUSA), based in London and with a house in [[Coombe, Kingston upon Thames]],<ref>Eisenhower lived in 'Telegraph Cottage', Warren Road, Coombe, from 1942 to 1944. In 1995, a plaque commemorating this was placed there by the Royal Borough of Kingston upon Thames. It can be seen at the north end of Warren Road.</ref> and took over command of ETOUSA from Chaney.<ref name="huston">{{cite book| author=Huston, John W.| title=American Airpower Comes of Age: General Henry H. "Hap" Arnold's World War II Diaries| editor=Maj. Gen. John W. Huston, USAF| publisher=Air University Press| isbn=1585660930| year=2002| pages=[https://archive.org/details/americanairpower01arno/page/288 288, 312]| url=https://archive.org/details/americanairpower01arno/page/288}}</ref> He was promoted to lieutenant general on July 7.

=== Operations Torch and Avalanche ===
[[File:Major General Dwight Eisenhower, 1942 TR207.jpg|thumb|Eisenhower as a [[Major general (United States)|major general]], 1942]]

In November 1942, Eisenhower was also appointed [[Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force|Supreme Commander Allied Expeditionary Force]] of the [[Mediterranean Theater of Operations|North African Theater of Operations]] (NATOUSA) through the new operational Headquarters [[Allied Force Headquarters|Allied (Expeditionary) Force Headquarters]] (A(E)FHQ). The word "expeditionary" was dropped soon after his appointment for security reasons.{{Failed verification|date=July 2016}} The campaign in North Africa was designated Operation Torch and was planned [[Admiralty Tunnel|in the underground headquarters]] within the [[Rock of Gibraltar]]. Eisenhower was the first non-British person to command [[Gibraltar]] in 200 years.<ref name=gibraltar>{{cite news|last=Gallagher|first=Wes|title=Eisenhower Commanded Gibraltar|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1928&dat=19421222&id=h5c0AAAAIBAJ&pg=3799,6270005|access-date=April 29, 2013|newspaper=The Lewiston Daily Sun|date=December 1942|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150920042406/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1928&dat=19421222&id=h5c0AAAAIBAJ&sjid=rGgFAAAAIBAJ&pg=3799,6270005|archive-date=September 20, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Military history of France during World War II|French cooperation]] was deemed necessary to the campaign and Eisenhower encountered a "preposterous situation"{{according to whom|date=March 2019}} with the multiple rival factions in France. His primary objective was to move forces successfully into [[French protectorate of Tunisia|Tunisia]] and intending to facilitate that objective, he gave his support to [[François Darlan]] as High Commissioner in North Africa, despite Darlan's previous high offices in [[Vichy France]] and his continued role as commander-in-chief of the [[French Armed Forces|French armed forces]]. The [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] leaders were "thunderstruck"{{according to whom|date=March 2019}} by this from a political standpoint, though none had offered Eisenhower guidance with the problem in planning the operation. Eisenhower was severely criticized{{by whom|date=March 2019}} for the move. Darlan was assassinated on December 24 by [[Fernand Bonnier de La Chapelle]], a French antifascist monarchist.<ref>Atkinson, ''An Army at Dawn'', pp. 251–252.</ref> Eisenhower later appointed as High Commissioner General [[Henri Giraud]], who had been installed by the Allies as Darlan's commander-in-chief.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|pp=204–210}}</ref>

Operation Torch also served as a valuable training ground for Eisenhower's combat command skills; during the initial phase of ''[[Generalfeldmarschall]]'' [[Erwin Rommel]]'s move into the [[Battle of Kasserine Pass|Kasserine Pass]], Eisenhower created some confusion in the ranks by interference with the execution of battle plans by his subordinates. He also was initially indecisive in his removal of [[Lloyd Fredendall]], commanding [[II Corps (United States)|II Corps]]. He became more adroit in such matters in later campaigns.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|pp=230–233}}</ref> In February 1943, his authority was extended as commander of [[Allied Force Headquarters|AFHQ]] across the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean basin]] to include the [[Eighth Army (United Kingdom)|British Eighth Army]], commanded by [[General (United Kingdom)|General]] Sir Bernard Montgomery. The Eighth Army had [[Western Desert Campaign|advanced across the Western Desert]] from the east and was ready for the start of the [[Tunisia Campaign]].

After the capitulation of [[Axis powers|Axis]] forces in North Africa, Eisenhower oversaw the [[Allied invasion of Sicily|invasion of Sicily]]. Once [[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini]], the [[Duce|Italian leader]], had fallen in Italy, the Allies switched their attention to the mainland with [[Allied invasion of Italy#Salerno landings|Operation Avalanche]]. But while Eisenhower argued with President Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Churchill, who both insisted on unconditional surrender in exchange for helping the Italians, the Germans pursued an aggressive buildup of forces in the country. The Germans made the already tough battle more difficult by adding 19 [[Division (military)|divisions]] and initially outnumbering the [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] forces 2 to 1.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|pp=254–255}}</ref>

=== Supreme Allied commander and Operation Overlord ===
[[File:Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower s D-Day order of the day.mp3|thumb|General Eisenhower reads his order of the day for June 5, 1944, the day before D-Day.]]
In December 1943, President Roosevelt decided that Eisenhower&nbsp;– not Marshall&nbsp;– would be Supreme Allied Commander in Europe. The following month, he resumed command of [[European Theater of Operations, United States Army|ETOUSA]] and the following month was officially designated as the [[Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force|Supreme Allied Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force]] (SHAEF), serving in a dual role until the end of hostilities in Europe in May 1945.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|pp=275–276}}</ref> He was charged in these positions with planning and carrying out the Allied [[Normandy landings|assault on the coast of Normandy]] in June 1944 under the code name Operation Overlord, the liberation of Western Europe and the invasion of Germany.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hitchcock |first=W |title=[[The Age of Eisenhower]] |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] |year=2018 |isbn=978-1439175668  |pages=21–23}}</ref>

[[File:Eisenhower d-day.jpg|thumb|left|Eisenhower speaks with men of the [[502nd Infantry Regiment (United States)|502nd Parachute Infantry Regiment]] (PIR), part of the [[101st Airborne Division|101st "Screaming Eagles" Airborne Division]], on June 5, 1944, the day before the D-Day invasion. The officer Eisenhower is speaking to is First Lieutenant [[Wallace Strobel]].]]

Eisenhower, as well as the officers and troops under him, had learned valuable lessons in their previous operations, and their skills had all strengthened in preparation for the next most difficult campaign against the Germans—a beach landing assault. His first struggles, however, were with Allied leaders and officers on matters vital to the success of the Normandy invasion; he argued with Roosevelt over an essential agreement with [[Charles De Gaulle|De Gaulle]] to use [[French resistance]] forces in covert operations against the Germans in advance of Operation Overlord.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|pp=280–281}}</ref> Admiral [[Ernest J. King]] fought with Eisenhower over King's refusal to provide additional landing craft from the Pacific.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|p=284}}</ref> Eisenhower also insisted that the British give him exclusive command over all strategic [[Air warfare of World War II|air forces]] to facilitate Overlord, to the point of threatening to resign unless Churchill relented, which he did.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|pp=286–288}}</ref> Eisenhower then designed a bombing plan in France in advance of Overlord and argued with Churchill over the latter's concern with civilian casualties; de Gaulle interjected that the casualties were justified, and Eisenhower prevailed.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|p=289}}</ref> He also had to skillfully manage to retain the services of the often unruly George S. Patton, by severely reprimanding him when Patton earlier had [[George S. Patton slapping incidents|slapped a subordinate]], and then when Patton gave a speech in which he made improper comments about postwar policy.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|pp=250, 298}}</ref>

The D-Day Normandy landings on June 6, 1944, were costly but successful. Two months later (August 15), the [[Operation Dragoon|invasion of Southern France]] took place, and control of forces in the southern invasion passed from the AFHQ to the SHAEF. Many thought that victory in Europe would come by summer's end, but the Germans did not capitulate for almost a year. From then until the [[End of World War II in Europe|end of the war in Europe]] on May 8, 1945, Eisenhower, through SHAEF, commanded all Allied forces, and through his command of ETOUSA had administrative command of all US forces on the [[Western Front (World War II)|Western Front]] north of the [[Alps]]. He was ever mindful of the inevitable loss of life and suffering that would be experienced by the troops under his command and their families. This prompted him to make a point of visiting every division involved in the invasion.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|p=278}}</ref> Eisenhower's sense of responsibility was underscored by his draft of a statement to be issued if the invasion failed. It has been called one of the great speeches of history:

{{blockquote|Our landings in the Cherbourg-Havre area have failed to gain a satisfactory foothold and I have withdrawn the troops. My decision to attack at this time and place was based on the best information available. The troops, the air and the Navy did all that bravery and devotion to duty could do. If any blame or fault attaches to the attempt, it is mine alone.<ref>William Safire, ''Lend me your ears: great speeches in history'' (2004), p. 1143</ref>}}

=== Liberation of France and victory in Europe ===
[[File:Allied Commanders after Germany Surrendered.jpg|thumb|left|Eisenhower with Allied commanders following the signing of the [[German Instrument of Surrender]] at Reims]]
{{cquote|Every ground commander seeks the battle of annihilation; so far as conditions permit, he tries to duplicate in modern war the classic example of [[Battle of Cannae|Cannae]].|source=Eisenhower{{sfn|Grant|2001}}}}

Once the coastal assault had succeeded, Eisenhower insisted on retaining personal control over the land battle strategy and was immersed in the command and supply of multiple assaults through France on Germany. Field Marshal Montgomery insisted priority be given to his [[21st Army Group]]'s attack being made in the north, while Generals [[Omar Bradley|Bradley]] ([[Twelfth United States Army Group|12th US Army Group]]) and [[Jacob L. Devers|Devers]] ([[Sixth United States Army Group|Sixth US Army Group]]) insisted they be given priority in the center and south of the front (respectively). Eisenhower worked tirelessly to address the demands of the rival commanders to optimize Allied forces, often by giving them tactical latitude; many historians conclude this delayed the Allied victory in Europe. However, due to Eisenhower's persistence, the pivotal supply port at [[Antwerp]] was successfully, albeit belatedly, [[Battle of the Scheldt|opened in late 1944]].<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|pp=340–354}}</ref>

In recognition of his senior position in the Allied command, on December 20, 1944, he was promoted to [[General of the Army (United States)|General of the Army]], equivalent to the rank of [[Field Marshal]] in most European armies. In this and the previous high commands he held, Eisenhower showed his great talents for leadership and diplomacy. Although he had never seen action himself, he won the respect of front-line commanders. He interacted adeptly with allies such as [[Winston Churchill]], Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery and General [[Charles de Gaulle]]. He had serious disagreements with Churchill and Montgomery over questions of strategy, but these rarely upset his relationships with them. He dealt with Soviet [[Georgy Zhukov|Marshal Zhukov]], his Russian counterpart, and they became good friends.<ref>Jean Edward Smith, ''Eisenhower in War and Peace'' (2012) p. 451.</ref>

In December 1944, the Germans launched a surprise counteroffensive, the [[Battle of the Bulge]], which the Allies successfully repelled in early 1945 after Eisenhower repositioned his armies and improved weather allowed the [[United States Army Air Forces|Army Air Force]] to engage.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|pp=375–380}}</ref> German defenses continued to deteriorate on both the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]] with the [[Red Army]] and the [[Western Front (World War II)|Western Front]] with the Western Allies. The British wanted to capture [[Berlin]], but Eisenhower decided it would be a military mistake for him to attack Berlin and said orders to that effect would have to be explicit. The British backed down but then wanted Eisenhower to move into [[Czechoslovakia]] for political reasons. Washington refused to support Churchill's plan to use Eisenhower's army for political maneuvers against [[Stalin's First Government|Moscow]]. The actual division of Germany followed the lines that Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin had previously agreed upon. The Soviet Red Army captured Berlin in a [[Battle of Berlin|very bloody large-scale battle]], and the Germans finally surrendered on May 7, 1945.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|pp=395–406}}</ref>

Throughout 1945, the allied armies liberated numerous [[Nazi concentration camps]] throughout Europe. As the allies learned the full extent of [[the Holocaust]], Eisenhower anticipated that, in the future, attempts to recharacterize [[Nazi crime]]s as propaganda ([[Holocaust denial]]) would be made, and took steps against it by demanding extensive photo and film documentation of Nazi [[extermination camp]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Hobbs|1999|p=223}}</ref>