Editing Demosthenes (section)

===Confrontation with Philip II===
====First Philippic and the Olynthiacs (351–349&nbsp;BC)====
{{further|First Philippic|Olynthiacs}}
[[File:Philip II of Macedon CdM.jpg|right|thumb|Philip II of [[Macedon]]: victory medal ({{Lang|grc-Latn|nikétérion|size=90%}}) struck in [[Tarsus (city)|Tarsus]], c.&nbsp;2nd century&nbsp;BC ([[Cabinet des Médailles]], Paris).]]
Most of Demosthenes' major orations were directed against the growing power of King Philip II of Macedon. Since 357&nbsp;BC, when Philip seized [[Amphipolis]] and [[Pydna]], Athens had been formally at war with the [[ancient Macedonians|Macedonians]].<ref>D. Phillips, ''Athenian Political Oratory'', 69.</ref> In 352&nbsp;BC, Demosthenes characterised Philip as the very worst enemy of his city; his speech presaged the fierce attacks that Demosthenes would launch against the Macedonian king over the ensuing years.<ref name="Arist121">Demosthenes, ''Against Aristocrates'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0074%3Aspeech%3D23%3Asection%3D121 121.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520155141/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0074%3Aspeech%3D23%3Asection%3D121 |date=20 May 2012 }}</ref> A year later he criticised those dismissing Philip as a person of no account and warned that he was as dangerous as the king of [[Persia]].<ref name="Rhodians24">Demosthenes, ''For the Liberty of the Rhodians'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/For the Freedom of the Rhodians#15:24|24.]]</ref>

In 352&nbsp;BC, Athenian troops successfully opposed Philip at [[Thermopylae]],<ref name="Embassy319">Demosthenes, ''First Philippic'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/Philippic I#4:17|17]]; ''On the False Embassy'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/On the Embassy#19:319|319]]<br />* E. M. Burke, "The Early Political Speeches of Demosthenes", 184 (note 92).</ref> but the Macedonian victory over the [[Phocians]] at the [[Battle of Crocus Field]] shook Demosthenes. In 351&nbsp;BC, Demosthenes felt strong enough to express his view concerning the most important foreign policy issue facing Athens at that time: the stance his city should take towards Philip. According to [[Jacqueline de Romilly]], a French philologist and member of the {{Lang|fr|[[Académie française]]|italic=no}}, the threat of Philip would give Demosthenes' stances a focus and a {{Lang|fr|[[wikt:raison d'être|raison d'être]]}}.<ref name="Romilly116-117" /> Demosthenes saw the King of Macedon as a menace to the autonomy of all Greek cities and yet he presented him as a monster of Athens's own creation; in the ''First Philippic'' he reprimanded his fellow citizens as follows: "Even if something happens to him, you will soon raise up a second Philip [...]".<ref>Demosthenes, ''First Philippic'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/Philippic I#4:11|11]]<br />* G. Kennedy, "Oratory", 519–520.</ref>

The theme of the ''[[First Philippic]]'' (351–350&nbsp;BC) was preparedness and the reform of the [[Theoric fund]],{{Ref label|F|f|none}} a mainstay of Eubulus' policy.<ref name="Romilly116-117" /> In his rousing call for resistance, Demosthenes asked his countrymen to take the necessary action and asserted that "for a free people there can be no greater compulsion than shame for their position".<ref>Demosthenes, ''First Philippic'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/Philippic I#4:10|10.]]</ref> He thus provided for the first time a plan and specific recommendations for the strategy to be adopted against Philip in the north.<ref>E. M. Burke, "The Early Political Speeches of Demosthenes", 183–184.</ref> Among other things, the plan called for the creation of a rapid-response force, to be created cheaply with each {{Lang|grc|[[wikt:ὁπλῑ́της|ὁπλῑ́της]]|size=80%}} ({{Lang|grc-Latn|[[Hoplite|hoplī́tēs]]|size=90%}}) to be paid only ten [[Ancient drachma|drachmas]] per month (two [[obol (coin)|obols]] per day), which was less than the average pay for unskilled labourers in Athens—implying that the hoplite was expected to make up the deficiency in pay by looting.<ref>First Philippic 28, cited by J. H. Vince, pp. 84–85 note ''a''.</ref>
{| class="toccolours" style="float: left; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 85%; background:#c6dbf7; color:black; width:30em; max-width: 40%;" cellspacing="5"
| style="text-align: left;" | "We need money, for sure, Athenians, and without money nothing can be done that ought to be done."
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | Demosthenes (''First Olynthiac'', 20)—The orator took great pains to convince his countrymen that the reform of the theoric fund was necessary to finance the city's military preparations.
|}

From this moment until 341&nbsp;BC, all of Demosthenes' speeches referred to the same issue, the struggle against Philip. In 349&nbsp;BC, Philip attacked [[Olynthus]], an ally of Athens. In the three ''[[Olynthiacs]]'', Demosthenes criticised his compatriots for being idle and urged Athens to help Olynthus.<ref name="OlynthII23">Demosthenes, ''First Olynthiac'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/Olynthiac I#1:3|3]]; Demosthenes, ''Second Olynthiac'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/Olynthiac II#2:3|3]]<br />* E. M. Burke, "The Early Political Speeches of Demosthenes", 185.</ref> He also insulted Philip by calling him a "barbarian".{{Ref label|G|g|none}} Despite Demosthenes' strong advocacy, the Athenians would not manage to prevent the falling of the city to the Macedonians. Almost simultaneously, probably on Eubulus' recommendation, they engaged in a war in [[Euboea]] against Philip, which ended in a stalemate.<ref name="Peace5">Demosthenes, ''On the Peace'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/On the Peace#5:5|5]]<br />* E. M. Burke, "The Early Political Speeches of Demosthenes", 185–187.</ref>

====Case of Meidias (348&nbsp;BC)====
{{details|Against Meidias}}
In 348&nbsp;BC a peculiar event occurred: [[Meidias]], a wealthy Athenian, publicly slapped Demosthenes, who was at the time a choregos at the [[Dionysia|Greater Dionysia]], a large religious festival in honour of the god [[Dionysus]].<ref name="Usher226" /> Meidias was a friend of Eubulus and supporter of the unsuccessful excursion in Euboea.<ref name="Peace5II">Demosthenes, ''On the Peace'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/On the Peace#5:5|5]]<br />* E. M. Burke, "The Early Political Speeches of Demosthenes", 174 (note 47).</ref> He also was an old enemy of Demosthenes; in 361&nbsp;BC he had broken violently into his house, with his brother Thrasylochus, to take possession of it.<ref name="Meidias 78–80">Demosthenes, ''Against Meidias'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0074%3Aspeech%3D21%3Asection%3D78 78–80.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520104706/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0074%3Aspeech%3D21%3Asection%3D78 |date=20 May 2012 }}</ref>
{| class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 85%; background:#c6dbf7; color:black; width:30em; max-width: 40%;" cellspacing="5"
| style="text-align: left;" | "Just think. The instant this court rises, each of you will walk home, one quicker, another more leisurely, not anxious, not glancing behind him, not fearing whether he is going to run up against a friend or an enemy, a big man or a little one, a strong man or a weak one, or anything of that sort. And why? Because in his heart he knows, and is confident, and has learned to trust the State, that no one shall seize or insult or strike him."
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | Demosthenes (''Against Meidias'', 221)—The orator asked the Athenians to defend their legal system, by making an example of the defendant for the instruction of others.<ref name="Romilly113-117">J. De Romilly, ''Ancient Greece against Violence'', 113–117.</ref>
|}

Demosthenes decided to prosecute his wealthy opponent and wrote the judicial oration ''Against Meidias''. This speech gives valuable information about Athenian law at the time and especially about the Greek concept of [[Hubris|hybris]] (aggravated assault), which was regarded as a crime not only against the city but against society as a whole.<ref>H. Yunis, ''The Rhetoric of Law in 4th Century Athens'', 206.</ref> He stated that a democratic state perishes if the [[rule of law]] is undermined by wealthy and unscrupulous men, and that the citizens acquire power and authority in all state affairs due "to the strength of the laws".<ref name="Meidias223">Demosthenes, ''Against Meidias'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0074&layout=&loc=21.223 223.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221117164744/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0074&redirect=true |date=17 November 2022 }}</ref> There is no consensus among scholars either on whether Demosthenes finally delivered ''Against Meidias'' or on the veracity of Aeschines' accusation that Demosthenes was bribed to drop the charges.{{Ref label|H|h|none}}

====Peace of Philocrates (347–345&nbsp;BC)====
{{details|Peace of Philocrates}}
In 348&nbsp;BC, Philip conquered Olynthus and razed it to the ground; then conquered the entire [[Chalkidiki|Chalcidice]] and all the states of the Chalcidic federation that Olynthus had once led.<ref name="PhilippicIII56">Demosthenes, ''Third Philippic'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/Philippic III#9:56|56]]<br />* E. M. Burke, "The Early Political Speeches of Demosthenes", 187.</ref> After these Macedonian victories, Athens sued for peace with Macedon. Demosthenes was among those who favoured compromise. In 347&nbsp;BC, an Athenian delegation, comprising Demosthenes, Aeschines and Philocrates, was officially sent to [[Pella]] to negotiate a peace treaty. In his first encounter with Philip, Demosthenes is said to have collapsed from fright.<ref name="Aeschines34">Aeschines, ''The Speech on the Embassy'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0002%3Aspeech%3D2%3Asection%3D34 34] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520112043/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0002%3Aspeech%3D2%3Asection%3D34 |date=20 May 2012 }}<br />* D. M. MacDowell, ''Demosthenes the Orator'', ch. 12.</ref>

The ekklesia officially accepted Philip's harsh terms, including the renouncement of their claim to [[Amphipolis]]. However, when an Athenian delegation arrived at Pella to put Philip under oath, which was required to conclude the treaty, he was campaigning abroad.<ref name="PhilippicIII15">Demosthenes, ''Third Philippic'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/Philippic III#9:15|15]]<br />* G. Cawkwell, ''Philip II of Macedon'', 102–103.</ref> He expected that he would hold safely any Athenian possessions that he might seize before the ratification.<ref name="Crown25-27">Demosthenes, ''On the Crown'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/On the Crown#18:25|25–27]]<br />* G. Cawkwell, ''Philip II of Macedon'', 102–103.</ref> Being very anxious about the delay, Demosthenes insisted that the embassy should travel to the place where they would find Philip and swear him in without delay.<ref name="Crown25-27" /> Despite his suggestions, the Athenian envoys, including himself and Aeschines, remained in Pella, until Philip successfully concluded his campaign in [[Thrace]].<ref name="Crown30">Demosthenes, ''On the Crown'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/On the Crown#18:30|30]]<br />* G. Cawkwell, ''Philip II of Macedon'', 102–103.</ref>

Philip swore to the treaty, but he delayed the departure of the Athenian envoys, who had yet to receive the oaths from Macedon's allies in [[Thessaly]] and elsewhere. Finally, peace was sworn at [[Pherae]], where Philip accompanied the Athenian delegation, after he had completed his military preparations to move south. Demosthenes accused the other envoys of venality and of facilitating Philip's plans with their stance.<ref name="Crown31">Demosthenes, ''On the Crown'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/On the Crown#18:31|31]]<br />* G. Cawkwell, ''Philip II of Macedon'', 102–105; D. M. MacDowell, ''Demosthenes the Orator'', ch. 12.</ref> Just after the conclusion of the Peace of Philocrates, Philip passed Thermopylae, and subdued [[Phocis]]; Athens made no move to support the Phocians.<ref name="Crown36">Demosthenes, ''On the Crown'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/On the Crown#18:36|36]]; Demosthenes, ''On the Peace'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/On the Peace#5:10|10]]<br />* D. M. MacDowell, ''Demosthenes the Orator'', ch. 12.</ref> Supported by Thebes and Thessaly, Macedon took control of Phocis' votes in the [[Amphictyonic League]], a Greek religious organisation formed to support the greater temples of [[Apollo]] and [[Demeter]].<ref name="Crown43">Demosthenes, ''On the Crown'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/On the Crown#18:43|43.]]</ref> Despite some reluctance on the part of the Athenian leaders, Athens finally accepted Philip's entry into the Council of the League.<ref name="Embassy111-113">Demosthenes, ''On the False Embassy'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/On the Embassy#19:111|111–113]]<br />* D. M. MacDowell, ''Demosthenes the Orator'', ch. 12.</ref> Demosthenes was among those who adopted a pragmatic approach, and recommended this stance in his oration ''[[On the Peace]]''. For Edmund M. Burke, this speech heralds a maturation in Demosthenes' career: after Philip's successful campaign in 346&nbsp;BC, the Athenian statesman realised that, if he was to lead his city against the Macedonians, he had "to adjust his voice, to become less partisan in tone".<ref>E. M. Burke, "The Early Political Speeches of Demosthenes", 188–189.</ref>

====Second and Third Philippics (344–341&nbsp;BC)====
{{further|Second Philippic|On the Chersonese|Third Philippic}}
[[File:Gallipoli peninsula from space.png|thumb|Satellite image of the Thracian Chersonese and the surrounding area. The Chersonese became the focus of a bitter territorial dispute between Athens and Macedon. It was eventually ceded to Philip in 338&nbsp;BC.]]
In 344&nbsp;BC Demosthenes travelled to the [[Peloponnese]], to detach as many cities as possible from Macedon's influence, but his efforts were generally unsuccessful.<ref name="PhilippicII19">Demosthenes, ''Second Philippic'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/Philippic II#6:19|19.]]</ref> Most of the Peloponnesians saw Philip as the guarantor of their freedom and sent a joint embassy to Athens to express their grievances against Demosthenes' activities.<ref name="Buckley">T. Buckley, ''Aspects of Greek History 750–323 BC,'' 480.</ref> In response, Demosthenes delivered the ''[[Second Philippic]]'', a vehement attack against Philip. In 343&nbsp;BC Demosthenes delivered ''[[On the False Embassy]]'' against Aeschines, who was facing a charge of high treason. Nonetheless, Aeschines was acquitted by the narrow margin of thirty votes by a jury which may have numbered as many as 1,501.<ref>Pseudo-Plutarch, ''Aeschines,'' 840c<br />* D. M. MacDowell, ''Demosthenes the Orator'', ch. 12 ''(in fine)''.</ref>

In 343&nbsp;BC, Macedonian forces were conducting campaigns in [[Epirus]] and, in 342&nbsp;BC, Philip campaigned in Thrace.<ref name="PhilippicIII17">Demosthenes, ''Third Philippic'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/Philippic III#9:17|17.]]</ref> He also negotiated with the Athenians an amendment to the Peace of Philocrates.<ref name="Halonnesus18">Demosthenes (or Hegesippus), ''On Halonnesus,'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0070%3Aspeech%3D7%3Asection%3D18 18–23] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520150250/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0070%3Aspeech%3D7%3Asection%3D18 |date=20 May 2012 }}<br />* D.M. MacDowell, ''Demosthenes the Orator'', ch. 13.</ref> When the Macedonian army approached [[Thracian Chersonese|Chersonese]] (now known as the [[Gallipoli Peninsula]]), an Athenian general named [[Diopeithes]] ravaged the maritime district of Thrace, thereby inciting Philip's rage. Because of this turbulence, the Athenian Assembly convened. Demosthenes delivered ''[[On the Chersonese]]'' and convinced the Athenians not to recall Diopeithes. Also in 342&nbsp;BC, he delivered the ''[[Third Philippic]]'', which is considered to be the best of his political orations.<ref name="Tsatsos245">K. Tsatsos, ''Demosthenes'', 245.</ref> Using all the power of his eloquence, he demanded resolute action against Philip and called for a burst of energy from the Athenian people. He told them that it would be "better to die a thousand times than pay court to Philip".<ref>Demosthenes, ''Third Philippic'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/Philippic III#9:65|65]]<br />* D. M. MacDowell, ''Demosthenes the Orator'', ch. 13.</ref> Demosthenes now dominated Athenian politics and was able to considerably weaken the pro-Macedonian faction of Aeschines.

====Battle of Chaeronea (338&nbsp;BC)====
{{details|Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)}}
[[File:Chaeronea map.png|thumb|right|The battle of Chaeronea took place in the autumn of 338&nbsp;BC and resulted in a significant victory for Philip, who established Macedon's supremacy over the Greek cities.]]
In 341&nbsp;BC Demosthenes was sent to [[Byzantium]], where he sought to renew its alliance with Athens. Thanks to Demosthenes' diplomatic manoeuvres, [[Abydos, Hellespont|Abydos]] also entered into an alliance with Athens. These developments worried Philip and increased his anger at Demosthenes. The Assembly, however, laid aside Philip's grievances against Demosthenes' conduct and denounced the peace treaty; so doing, in effect, amounted to an official declaration of war. In 339&nbsp;BC Philip made his last and most effective bid to conquer southern Greece, assisted by Aeschines' stance in the [[Amphictyonic League|Amphictyonic Council]]. During a meeting of the council, Philip accused the [[Amfissa|Amfissian]] [[Locrians]] of intruding on consecrated ground. The presiding officer of the council, a Thessalian named Cottyphus, proposed the convocation of an Amphictyonic Congress to inflict a harsh punishment upon the Locrians. Aeschines agreed with this proposition and maintained that the Athenians should participate in the Congress.<ref name="On the Crown151">Demosthenes, ''On the Crown'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/On the Crown#18:149|149]], [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/On the Crown#18:150|150]], [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/On the Crown#18:151|151]]<br /> * C. Carey, ''Aeschines'', 7–8.</ref> Demosthenes however reversed Aeschines' initiatives and Athens finally abstained.<ref name="CareyI">C. Carey, ''Aeschines'', 7–8, 11.</ref> After the failure of a first military excursion against the Locrians, the summer session of the Amphictyonic Council gave command of the league's forces to Philip and asked him to lead a second excursion. Philip decided to act at once; in the winter of 339–338&nbsp;BC, he passed through Thermopylae, entered Amfissa and defeated the Locrians. After this significant victory, Philip swiftly entered Phocis in 338&nbsp;BC. He then turned south-east down the [[Cephissus (Athenian plain)|Cephissus]] valley, seized [[Elateia]], and restored the fortifications of the city.<ref name="On the Crown152">Demosthenes, ''On the Crown'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/On the Crown#18:152|152]]<br />* K. Tsatsos, ''Demosthenes'', 283; H. Weil, ''Biography of Demosthenes'', 41–42.</ref>

At the same time, Athens orchestrated the creation of an alliance with [[Euboea]], [[Megara]], [[Achaea]], [[Ancient Corinth|Corinth]], [[Acarnania]] and other states in the Peloponnese. However the most desirable ally for Athens was Thebes. To secure their allegiance, Demosthenes was sent by Athens, to the [[Boeotia]]n city; Philip also sent a deputation, but Demosthenes succeeded in securing Thebes' allegiance.<ref name="On the Crown153">Demosthenes, ''On the Crown'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/On the Crown#18:153|153]]<br />* K. Tsatsos, ''Demosthenes'', 284–285; H. Weil, ''Biography of Demosthenes'', 41–42.</ref> Demosthenes' oration before the Theban people is not extant and, therefore, the arguments he used to convince the Thebans remain unknown. In any case, the alliance came at a price: Thebes' control of Boeotia was recognised, Thebes was to command solely on land and jointly at sea, and Athens was to pay two thirds of the campaign's cost.<ref name="Rhodes317">P.J. Rhodes, ''A History of the Classical World'', 317.</ref>

While the Athenians and the Thebans were preparing themselves for war, Philip made a final attempt to appease his enemies, proposing in vain a new peace treaty.<ref name="Pl18">Plutarch, ''Demosthenes,'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0039%3Achapter%3D18%3Asection%3D3 18.3] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520104415/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0039%3Achapter%3D18%3Asection%3D3 |date=20 May 2012 }}<br />* K. Tsatsos, ''Demosthenes'', 284–285.</ref> After a few trivial encounters between the two sides, which resulted in minor Athenian victories, Philip drew the [[Phalanx formation|phalanx]] of the Athenian and Theban confederates into a plain near [[Chaeronea]], where he defeated them. Demosthenes fought as a mere [[hoplite]].{{Ref label|I|i|none}} Such was Philip's hatred for Demosthenes that, according to [[Diodorus Siculus]], the King after his victory sneered at the misfortunes of the Athenian statesman. However, the Athenian orator and statesman [[Demades]] is said to have remarked: "O King, when Fortune has cast you in the role of [[Agamemnon]], are you not ashamed to act the part of [[Thersites]] [an obscene soldier of the Greek army during the [[Trojan War]]]?" Stung by these words, Philip immediately altered his demeanour.<ref name="DiodXVI87">Diodorus, ''Library'', XVI, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0084%3Abook%3D16%3Achapter%3D87%3Asection%3D1 87.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520141618/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0084%3Abook%3D16%3Achapter%3D87%3Asection%3D1 |date=20 May 2012 }}</ref>