Editing Creole language (section)

===Substrate and superstrate===
The terms [[Substrata (linguistics)|substrate]] and [[superstratum|superstrate]] are often used when two languages interact. However, the meaning of these terms is reasonably well-defined only in [[second language acquisition]] or [[language shift|language replacement]] events, when the native speakers of a certain source language (the substrate) are somehow compelled to abandon it for another target language (the superstrate).<ref name=Weinreich>{{Harvcoltxt|Weinreich|1979}}</ref> The outcome of such an event is that erstwhile speakers of the substrate will use some version of the superstrate, at least in more formal contexts. The substrate may survive as a second language for informal conversation. As demonstrated by the fate of many replaced European languages (such as [[Etruscan language|Etruscan]], [[Breton language|Breton]], and [[Venetian language|Venetian]]), the influence of the substrate on the official speech is often limited to pronunciation and a modest number of loanwords. The substrate might even disappear altogether without leaving any trace.<ref name=Weinreich />

However, there is dispute over the extent to which the terms "substrate" and "superstrate" are applicable to the genesis or the description of creole languages.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Mufwene|1993}}</ref> The language replacement model may not be appropriate in creole formation contexts, where the emerging language is derived from multiple languages without any one of them being imposed as a replacement for any other.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Singler|1988}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Singler|1996}}</ref> The substratum–superstratum distinction becomes awkward when multiple superstrata must be assumed (such as in [[Papiamento]]), when the substratum cannot be identified, or when the presence or the survival of substratal evidence is inferred from mere typological analogies.<ref name="Muysken 2001"/> On the other hand, the distinction may be meaningful when the contributions of each parent language to the resulting creole can be shown to be very unequal, in a scientifically meaningful way.<ref>Recent investigations about substrates and superstrates, in creoles and other languages, includes {{Harvcoltxt |Feist|1932}}, {{Harvcoltxt |Weinreich|1979}}, {{Harvcoltxt|Jungemann|1955}}, {{Harvcoltxt|Martinet|1964}}, {{Harvcoltxt|Hall|1974}}, {{Harvcoltxt|Singler|1983}}, and {{Harvcoltxt|Singler|1988}}.</ref> In the literature on [[Atlantic Creole]]s, "superstrate" usually means European and "substrate" non-European or African.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Parkvall|2000}}</ref>