Editing Charles the Bold (section)

== Duke of Burgundy ==
{{see also|List of territories of the Valois dukes of Burgundy}}

=== Ascension ===
[[File:Charles le Téméraire en tenue de deuil noire.jpg|thumb|Charles the Bold in mourning attire after the death of Philip the Good. [[Georges Chastellain]] stands on the left with greying hair and carrying a book. Illumination from a manuscript of Chastellain's Chronicle of the Dukes of Burgundy]]

On 12 June 1467, Philip the Good suddenly fell ill.{{Sfn|Taylor|2002|p=188}} For the next few days, he could hardly breathe and constantly vomited. Charles was summoned from Ghent to immediately come to his father.{{Sfn|Taylor|2002|p=189}} By the time he arrived, Philip had fallen unconscious and was struggling to breathe; he died on 15 June.{{Sfn|Taylor|2002|p=189}} Charles arranged for his father's funeral to be held in [[St. Donatian's Cathedral]]; the funeral was attended by 1200 persons from both Charles's and Philip's households. The cathedral was lit by 1400 candles which heated the inside of the church so much that holes had to be made in the windows to cool the air.{{Sfn|Vaughan|Paravicini|2002|pp=1–2}} Charles showed extreme emotions during the funeral: he shook, trembled, pulled his hair, and kept shouting and crying. The Court Chronicler, Georges Chastellain, doubted the sincerity of Charles's distress, expressing astonishment that he could show such emotion.{{Sfn|Van Loo|2021|p=386}}

Fourteen days later, Charles officially became the Duke of Burgundy. In celebration, he paraded through the city of Ghent on 28 June 1467, emulating Caesar.{{Sfn|Van Loo|2021|p=387}} This [[Royal entry|Joyous Entry]] caused an uproar in the city.{{Sfn|Haemers|2011|p=449}} The people demanded an end to the humiliating penalties imposed on them after the revolt of 1449.{{Sfn|Blockmans|Pervenier|1999|p=130}} Charles left the city with his daughter, the ten-year-old Mary, and the treasure kept by Philip the Good in the [[Prinsenhof (Ghent)|Prinsenhof]] of Ghent.{{Sfn|Van Loo|2021|p=391}} The following January, Charles coerced the mayors of Ghent into asking for his pardon. Then, he abolished their governmental rights and announced that only he could appoint the town government, in contravention of [[Philip IV of France|Philip IV]]'s constitution of 1301.{{Sfn|Nicholas|2014|p=392}}

=== The third marriage ===
On 26 September 1465, Charles's wife, Isabella of Bourbon, died of [[tuberculosis]] at the age of 31. Court chronicles briefly recorded the long months of her illness.{{Sfn|Kiening|1994|p=17}} The most important part of her life for these chronicles was her marriage to Charles—during which she had only brought him one daughter and no male heirs—and the fact that she and Charles purportedly fell in love during what was initially merely a political marriage.{{Sfn|Kiening|1994|p=17}} Charles, busy with the political negotiations after the War of the Public Weal, could not attend her funeral.{{Sfn|Kiening|1994|p=17}}{{Efn|According to the German historian, Christian Kiening, the narrative of their love may be fictitious and created by the authors of the time.{{sfn|Kiening|1994|p=17}}}}

Within weeks of Isabella of Bourbon's death, Charles's mother sought an English marriage for her son. She sent Guillaume de Clugny, one of Charles's close advisors, to [[London]] to negotiate with [[Edward IV]] for a marriage between his sister, [[Margaret of York]], and Charles.{{Sfn|Taylor|2002|p=184}} To prevent an English-Burgundian alliance, Louis XI proposed the hand of his daughter, the four-year-old [[Anne of France|Anne]], to Charles in marriage. Charles refused this proposal.{{Sfn|Taylor|2002|p=184}} In the Spring of 1466, an embassy led by [[Edward Woodville, Lord Scales|Edward Woodville]], Edward IV's brother-in-law, arrived in Burgundy to propose two marriages between the English royal family and the Burgundians: one between Margaret of York and Charles, and the other between Mary, Charles's daughter, and [[George Plantagenet, Duke of Clarence]], Edward IV's younger brother.{{Sfn|Taylor|2002|p=184}} Woodville's visit failed in its purpose, as Charles was not interested in marrying his young daughter to the Duke of Clarence.{{Sfn|Hicks|1992|p=42}}

In October 1467, Edward IV publicly ratified the marriage between Charles and his sister, and Margaret of York appeared before the ''[[Magnum Concilium]]'' of [[Kingston upon Thames]] and formally gave her consent to the marriage.{{Sfn|Weightman|2009|pp=40–41}} Charles welcomed the English delegation—led by Edward and [[Anthony Woodville, 2nd Earl Rivers|Anthony Woodville]]—to Burgundy, and then had her mother accompany him to negotiate the final marriage treaty.{{Sfn|Taylor|2002|p=194}} The marriage treaty and the alliance was signed and ratified in February 1468, while the marriage ceremony was delayed to eight months later.{{Sfn|Weightman|2009|p=41}} Since Charles and Margaret were fourth-degree cousins, they needed a [[Dispensation (Catholic canon law)|Papal dispensation]] to legitimise their marriage.{{Sfn|Weightman|2009|p=42}} As the dispensation was the groom's duty, Charles sent a delegation to Rome. The delegation took until May 1469 to win the dispensation.{{Sfn|Weightman|2009|p=42}} Edward IV announced the marriage of his sister to Charles and dubbed him as "a mighty Prince who bears no crown".{{Sfn|Weightman|2009|p=42}}

Charles and Margaret were married on 3 July at [[Damme]], a town three miles from Bruges.{{Sfn|Brown|Small|2007|p=54}} For their wedding ceremony, Charles prepared nine receptions, each ending with a jousting match. He wished to outdo his father's famous Feast of the Pheasant.{{Sfn|Van Loo|2021|p=397}} The wedding displayed the power and wealth of the dukedom.{{Sfn|Brown|Small|2007|p=55}} At the end of the ceremonies, Charles left his wife alone to catch up on sleep; the two did not spend their wedding night together.{{Sfn|Van Loo|2021|p=398}}

Charles and Margaret never had children.{{Sfn|Weightman|2009|p=65}} They spent little time together: only three weeks during the first six months after their marriage, one-quarter of the time during the years 1469 and 1470, and only three weeks throughout 1473.{{Sfn|Vaughan|Paravicini|2002|p=159}} According to contemporary jurist, [[Filips Wielant]], Charles housed Margaret far away from him because he did not want women to hamper his court life.{{Sfn|Roelens|2024|p=267}}

=== Territorial expansion ===
Like his father, Charles pursued territorial expansion; however, whereas Philip the Good pursued this policy by peaceful means, Charles vied for territory through conflict.<ref>{{harvnb|Stein|2017|p=46}}; {{harvnb|Blockmans|Pervenier|1999|p=182|year=}}.</ref> In the Netherlands, he sought to expand his realm to the north-east: the [[Duchy of Guelders]].{{Sfn|Stein|2017|p=46}} Although it was never a part of the Burgundian lands, the duchy was dependent on Burgundian trade.{{Sfn|Smith|De Vries|2005|p=170}} In 1463, [[Adolf, Duke of Guelders|Adolf of Egmond]] rebelled against his father, the ruling duke, [[Arnold, Duke of Guelders|Arnold]]. With Philip the Good's support, Adolf usurped the duchy and imprisoned his father in 1465.{{Sfn|Blockmans|Pervenier|1999|p=182}} Adolf's treatment of his father caused a scandal that resonated as far as [[Rome]], where the Pope sought a mediator to end the conflict in Guelders. In 1471, Charles was appointed as the mediator; he marched into Guelders and restored Arnold to power.{{Sfn|Van Loo|2021|p=405}} Adolf was placed under house arrest, and then to prison after a failed escape attempt.{{Sfn|Blockmans|Pervenier|1999|p=183}} To retain Burgundian assistance, Arnold made Charles the Regent of Guelders; when Arnold died in February 1473, having left no heirs but his imprisoned son, he bequeathed the duchy to Charles.<ref>{{harvnb|Vaughan|Paravicini|2002|p=117}}; {{harvnb|Van Loo|2021|p=406|year=}}.</ref>

[[File:Karte Haus Burgund 4 EN.png|thumb|Valois Burgundy at its greatest extent under Charles the Bold]]

However, Charles's inheritance met with opposition. The Estates of Guelders, and the towns of [[Nijmegen]], [[Arnhem]], and [[Zutphen]] rejected Arnold's will, and Louis XI asked [[Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick III]], the Holy Roman Empire, to confiscate the duchy.{{Sfn|Vaughan|Paravicini|2002|p=118}} Frederick III was diplomatically close to Charles and did not intervene. Charles subdued the rebelling cities and the nobles of Guelders by force.<ref>{{harvnb|Vaughan|Paravicini|2002|p=118}}; {{harvnb|Smith|De Vries|2005|p=170}}.</ref> On 9 June 1473, with a sizeable army, he entered the city of [[Maastricht]] without resistance. [[Roermond]] and [[Venlo]] quickly surrendered. [[Moers]], whose count, Vincent von Moers, was the leader of the resistance, yielded to Charles's artillery.{{Sfn|Vaughan|Paravicini|2002|p=119}} The only serious conflict was the siege of Nijmegen, which only surrendered after inflicting severe losses on the Burgundian army. After the successful conquest of Guelders, Charles imposed heavy taxes and replaced the aldermen in the region. Charles gave more power to the ducal judicial officers to control the rebellious cities and to impose a centralised administration.{{Sfn|Blockmans|Pervenier|1999|p=183}}

The Burgundian state under Charles was divided into two separate areas, the [[Duchy of Burgundy]] in the south and [[Flanders]] in the north.{{Sfn|Watson|Schellinger|Ring|2013|p=511}} To unify them, Charles needed the [[Duchy of Lorraine]] and [[Alsace]].{{Sfn|Knecht|2007|p=98}} On 21 March 1469, he received [[Sigismund, Archduke of Austria]] to his court to negotiate the purchase of Sigismund's lands in [[Upper Alsace]].{{Sfn|Vaughan|Paravicini|2002|p=86}} Sigismund was in a desperate financial situation and eagerly agreed to sell.{{Sfn|Van Loo|2021|p=404}} With this purchase, Charles acquired a claim to the city of [[Ferrette]], close to the Swiss border, alarming the [[Old Swiss Confederacy|Swiss Confederacy]].{{Sfn|Blockmans|Pervenier|1999|p=182}} Charles's rights and income from his new territories were severely limited because most of the land rights were mortgaged to local nobles.{{Sfn|Vaughan|Paravicini|2002|p=88}} Charles's deputy in the area, [[Peter von Hagenbach]], imposed harsh taxes on the people.{{Sfn|Simpson|Heller|2013|p=27}} Soon, several towns of Alsace formed a league against Hagenbach.{{Sfn|Knecht|2007|p=98}} For the most part, Charles ignored the area.{{Sfn|Simpson|Heller|2013|p=29}}

=== Meeting the Emperor at Trier ===
[[File:166Friedrich III und Karl von Burgund.jpg|alt=Engraving of two horsemen, one the Emperor and the other the Duke of Burgundy, with their respective entourage|thumb|Meeting of Charles the Bold and Frederick III in Trier, 1473]]

Charles greatly desired to transform the Duchy of Burgundy into a kingdom, to free it from the limitations of vassalage to the French crown and to enhance his personal stature.{{Sfn|Brady|2009|p=104}}{{Sfn|Lecuppre-Desjardin|2022|p=157}} The only way for Charles to realise such a transformation was within the framework of the Holy Roman Empire.{{Sfn|Boehm|1979|p=161}} At Charles's request, Sigismund of Austria proposed Charles to be the next [[king of the Romans]], the title of the successor of the emperor, with the marriage between the Emperor's son and the Charles's daughter as an inducement.{{Sfn|Boehm|1979|p=159}} As one of the richest men in the Europe, and also an ally of the rebellious princes in the empire, the [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungarians]], and the [[Kingdom of Bohemia|Bohemians]], Charles was a coveted ally for Emperor [[Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick III]],{{Sfn|Boehm|1979|pp=157–158}} who agreed to receive him at [[Trier]].{{Sfn|Van Loo|2021|p=406}}

In October 1473, both parties reached Trier: the Emperor with his son [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian]] and 2,500 horsemen, while the Burgundian entourage consisted of 13,000 men at arms (including artillery), Burgundian nobility, bishops, and treasures and relics.{{Sfn|Brady|2009|p=104}}{{Efn|This encounter showcased the economical and cultural differences between [[Christendom]]'s richer west and poorer east, with the Germans amazed by the wealth of Burgundy and the Burgundians shocked by the Germans' poor equipment.{{sfn|Brady|2009|p=104}}}} Despite all the grandeur, Frederick III was disappointed that Charles had not brought his daughter,{{Sfn|Van Loo|2021|p=410}} amidst rumours spread by [[House of Habsburg|Habsburg]] adversaries alleging that Mary was physically defective.{{Sfn|Boehm|1979|p=160}} Charles wished to become the king of the Romans and to succeed Frederick as emperor. In return, Maximilian would inherit the Burgundian State, and later become emperor.{{Sfn|Van Loo|2021|p=408}}{{Efn|Maximilian's eventual succession reinforced the continuity of the emperorship in the Hapsburg dynasty, which appealed to Frederick III's attachment to his house.{{sfn|Lecuppre-Desjardin|2022|p=161}}}} In addition, Charles wanted to become a [[prince-elector]], taking the [[Kingdom of Bohemia|Bohemian]] seat in the [[Electoral College (Holy Roman Empire)|Electoral College]], and be recognised as the duke of Guelders.<ref>{{harvnb|Lecuppre-Desjardin|2022|pages=159}}; {{harvnb|Boehm|1979|page=160}}</ref>

Although Charles received recognition for his possession of the Duchy of Guelders, he still was not recognised as king of the Romans, in part because Frederick III was convinced that the prince-electors would not vote for Charles to receive the title.<ref>{{harvnb|Lecuppre-Desjardin|2022|page=159}}; {{harvnb|Van Loo|2021|page=411}}</ref> During the conference, Charles ignored and alienated the prince-electors.{{Sfn|Van Loo|2021|p=411}} When he realised how much he needed their support, Charles tried to impress them with displays of his wealth, but the Germans were not swayed.{{Sfn|Van Loo|2021|pp=413, 411}} Charles's decision to only interact with the emperor, and not the prince-electors, was a fatal mistake, showing an utter ignorance of German political norms.{{Sfn|Lecuppre-Desjardin|2022|p=160}}

As an alternative, Frederick III proposed to elevate the Duchy of Burgundy to a kingdom; Charles accepted.<ref>{{harvnb|Lecuppre-Desjardin|2022|pages=159}}; {{harvnb|Van Loo|2021|page=411}}</ref> The two parties planned for Frederick III to crown Charles in the [[Trier Cathedral]] on 25 November.{{Sfn|Vaughan|Paravicini|2002|p=151}} However, the next day the Emperor secretly departed from Trier, embarking on the [[Moselle]] at dawn.{{Sfn|Van Loo|2021|p=412}} Charles became enraged, locked himself in his room and smashed the furniture to pieces. But he did not break the betrothal between Maximilian and Mary, hoping that he could still become a king.{{Sfn|Van Loo|2021|p=413}}