Editing Charlemagne (section)

===Annexation of the Lombard Kingdom===
[[File:771 CE, Europe.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|alt=Colour-coded map|Political map of Europe in 771, showing the Franks and their neighbors]]
Charlemagne's first campaigning season as sole king of the Franks was spent on the eastern frontier in his first [[Saxon Wars|war against the Saxons]], who had been engaging in border raids on the Frankish kingdom when Charlemagne responded by destroying the pagan [[Irminsul]] at [[Eresburg]] and seizing their gold and silver.{{sfn|Fried|2016|p=99}} The success of the war helped secure Charlemagne's reputation among his brother's former supporters and funded further military action.{{sfn|Nelson|2019|p=116}} The campaign was the beginning of over thirty years of nearly-continuous warfare against the Saxons by Charlemagne.{{sfn|Fried|2016|p=122}}

[[Pope Adrian I]] succeeded Stephen III in 772, and sought the return of papal control of cities that had been captured by Desiderius.{{sfn|Nelson|2019|p=117}} Unsuccessful in dealing with the Lombard king directly, Adrian sent emissaries to Charlemagne to gain his support for recovering papal territory. Charlemagne, in response to this appeal and the dynastic threat of Carloman's sons in the Lombard court, gathered his forces to intervene.{{sfn|Nelson|2019|pp=117–118}} He first sought a diplomatic solution, offering gold to Desiderius in exchange for the return of the papal territories and his nephews.{{sfn|Nelson|2019|pp=131–132}} This overture was rejected, and Charlemagne's army (commanded by himself and his uncle, [[Bernard, son of Charles Martel|Bernard]]) crossed the Alps to [[Siege of Pavia (773–774)|besiege]] the Lombard capital of [[Pavia]] in late 773.{{sfn|Nelson|2019|p=133}}

Charlemagne's second son (also named [[Charles the Younger|Charles]]) was born in 772, and Charlemagne brought the child and his wife to the camp at Pavia. Hildegard was pregnant, and gave birth to a daughter named Adelhaid. The baby was sent back to Francia, but died on the way.{{sfn|Nelson|2019|p=133}} Charlemagne left Bernard to maintain the siege at Pavia while he took a force to capture Verona, where Desiderius's son [[Adalgis]] had taken Carloman's sons.{{sfn|Nelson|2019|pp=133, 134}} Charlemagne captured the city; no further record exists of his nephews or of Carloman's wife, and their fate is unknown.{{sfn|Nelson|2019|pp=134–135}}{{sfn|Costambeys|Innes|MacLean|2011|p=67}} Recent biographer, [[Janet Nelson]] compares them to the [[Princes in the Tower]] in the [[Wars of the Roses]].{{sfn|Nelson|2019|p=130}} Fried suggests that the boys were forced into a monastery (a common solution of dynastic issues), or "an act of murder smooth[ed] Charlemagne's ascent to power."{{sfn|Fried|2016|p=100}} Adalgis was not captured by Charlemagne, and fled to Constantinople.{{sfn|Nelson|2019|p=146}}

[[File:Charlemagne and Pope Adrian I.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Painting of Charlemagne, on horseback, being received by Pope Adrian I|[[Pope Adrian I|Pope Adrian]] receiving Charlemagne at Rome, 1493]]
Charlemagne left the siege in April 774 to celebrate Easter in Rome.{{sfn|Fried|2016|p=101}} Pope Adrian arranged a formal welcome for the Frankish king, and they swore oaths to each other over the relics of St. Peter.{{sfn|Nelson|2019|pp=135–138}} Adrian presented a copy of the [[Donation of Pepin|agreement between Pepin and Stephen III]] outlining the papal lands and rights Pepin had agreed to protect and restore.{{sfn|Nelson|2019|pp=139–140}} It is unclear which lands and rights the agreement involved, which remained a point of dispute for centuries.{{sfn|Fried|2016|p=112}} Charlemagne placed a copy of the agreement in the chapel above St. Peter's tomb as a symbol of his commitment, and left Rome to continue the siege.{{sfn|Nelson|2019|pp=139–141}}

Disease struck the Lombards shortly after his return to Pavia, and they surrendered the city by June 774.{{sfn|Nelson|2019|pp=142–144}} Charlemagne deposed Desiderius and took the title of King of the Lombards.{{sfn|Collins|1998|pp=61–63}} The takeover of one kingdom by another was "extraordinary",{{sfn|Collins|1998|p=62}} and the authors of ''The Carolingian World'' call it "without parallel".{{sfn|Costambeys|Innes|MacLean|2011|p=67}} Charlemagne secured the support of the Lombard nobles and Italian urban elites to seize power in a mainly-peaceful annexation.{{sfn|Collins|1998|p=62}}{{sfn|Nelson|2019|p=147}} Historian [[Rosamond McKitterick]] suggests that the elective nature of the Lombard monarchy eased Charlemagne's takeover,{{sfn|McKitterick|2008|p=109}} and [[Roger Collins]] attributes the easy conquest to the Lombard elite's "presupposition that rightful authority was in the hands of the one powerful enough to seize it".{{sfn|Collins|1998|p=62}} Charlemagne soon returned to Francia with the Lombard royal treasury and with Desiderius and his family, who would be confined to a monastery for the rest of their lives.{{sfn|Nelson|2019|pp=147–148}}