Editing Carl Rogers (section)

== Applications ==
{{Main|Person-centered therapy|Student-centered learning}}

=== Person-centered therapy ===
{{Main|Person-centered therapy}}
Rogers originally developed his theory as the foundation for a system of therapy. He initially called it "non-directive therapy" but later replaced the term "non-directive" with "client-centered", and still later "person-centered". Even before the publication of ''Client-Centered Therapy'' in 1951, Rogers believed the principles he was describing could be applied in a variety of contexts, not just in therapy. As a result, he started to use the term ''person-centered approach'' to describe his overall theory. [[Person-centered therapy]] is the application of the person-centered approach to therapy. Other applications include a theory of personality, interpersonal relations, education, nursing, [[cross-cultural]] relations and other "helping" professions and situations. In 1946 Rogers co-authored "Counseling with Returned Servicemen" with John L. Wallen (the creator of the behavioral model known as ''[[The Interpersonal Gap]]''),<ref>Rogers, C. & Wallen, J.L. (1946) Counseling with Returned Servicemen. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.</ref> documenting the application of person-centered approach to counseling military personnel returning from World War II.

The first empirical evidence of the client-centered approach's effectiveness was published in 1941 at the Ohio State University by [[Elias Porter]], using the recordings of therapeutic sessions between Rogers and his clients.<ref>Porter, E.H. (1941) The development and evaluation of a measure of counseling interview procedure. Ph. D. Dissertation, Ohio State University.</ref> Porter used Rogers's transcripts to devise a system to measure the degree of directiveness or non-directiveness a counselor employed.<ref>Kirschenbaum, Howard (1979). ''On Becoming Carl Rogers.'' pp. 206–207.</ref> The counselor's attitude and orientation were shown to be instrumental in the decisions the client made.<ref>[[Elias Porter|Porter, E.H.]] (1950) ''An Introduction to Therapeutic Counseling''. Boston: [[Houghton Mifflin]]</ref><ref>Rogers, Carl. (1951). ''Client-Centered Therapy.'' p. 64</ref>

=== Learner-centered teaching ===
The application to education has a large robust research tradition similar to that of therapy, with studies having begun in the late 1930s and continuing today (Cornelius-White, 2007). Rogers described the approach to education in ''Client-Centered Therapy'' and wrote ''Freedom to Learn'' devoted exclusively to the subject in 1969. ''Freedom to Learn'' was revised twice. The new Learner-Centered Model is similar in many regards to this classical person-centered approach to education.
Before Rogers's death, he and Harold Lyon began a book, ''On Becoming an Effective Teacher—Person-centered Teaching, Psychology, Philosophy, and Dialogues with Carl R. Rogers and Harold Lyon'', that Lyon and Reinhard Tausch completed and published in 2013. It contains Rogers's last unpublished writings on person-centered teaching.<ref>Rogers, Carl R, Lyon, Harold C., Tausch, Reinhard: (2013) On Becoming an Effective Teacher—Person-centered Teaching, Psychology, Philosophy, and Dialogues with Carl R. Rogers and Harold Lyon. London: Routledge</ref> Rogers had the following five hypotheses regarding learner-centered education:<references group="Rogers, Carl R, Lyon, Harold C., Tausch, Reinhard: (2013) On Becoming an Effective Teacher—Person-centered Teaching, Psychology, Philosophy, and Dialogues with Carl R. Rogers and Harold Lyon. London: Routledge:" />
# "A person cannot teach another person directly; a person can only facilitate another's learning" (Rogers, 1951). This is a result of his personality theory, which states that everyone exists in a constantly changing world of experience in which they are the center. Each person reacts and responds based on perception and experience. The belief is that what the student does is more important than what the teacher does. The focus is on the student (Rogers, 1951). Therefore, the background and experiences of the learner are essential to how and what is learned. Each student will process what they learn differently depending on what they bring to the classroom.
# "A person learns significantly only those things that are perceived as being involved in the maintenance of or enhancement of the structure of self" (Rogers, 1951). Therefore, relevancy to the student is essential for learning. The students' experiences become the core of the course.
# "Experience which, if assimilated, would involve a change in the organization of self, tends to be resisted through denial or distortion of symbolism" (Rogers, 1951). If the content or presentation of a course is inconsistent with preconceived information, the student will learn if they are open to varying concepts. Being open to concepts that vary from one's own is vital to learning. Therefore, gently encouraging open-mindedness is helpful in engaging the student in learning. Also, it is important, for this reason, that new information be relevant and related to existing experience.
# "The structure and organization of self appears to become more rigid under threats and to relax its boundaries when completely free from threat" (Rogers, 1951). If students believe that concepts are being forced upon them, they might become uncomfortable and fearful. A barrier is created by a tone of threat in the classroom. Therefore, an open, friendly environment in which trust is developed is essential in the classroom. Fear of retribution for not agreeing with a concept should be eliminated. A supportive classroom tone helps to alleviate fears and encourages students to have the courage to explore concepts and beliefs that vary from those they bring to the classroom. Also, new information might threaten the student's concept of themself; therefore, the less vulnerable the student feels, the more likely they will be able to open up to the learning process.
# "The educational situation which most effectively promotes significant learning is one in which (a) threat to the self of the learner is reduced to a minimum and (b) differentiated perception of the field is facilitated" (Rogers, 1951). The instructor should be open to learning from the students and working to connect the students to the subject matter. Frequent interaction with the students will help achieve this goal. The instructor's acceptance of being a mentor who guides rather than the expert who tells is instrumental to student-centered, nonthreatening, and unforced learning.

=== Rogerian rhetorical approach ===
{{Main|Rogerian rhetoric}}
In 1970, Richard Young, [[Alton L. Becker]], and [[Kenneth Pike]] published ''Rhetoric: Discovery and Change'', a widely influential college writing textbook that used a [[Rogerian argument|Rogerian approach]] to communication to revise the traditional Aristotelian framework for rhetoric.<ref name=YBP>{{cite book |last1=Young |first1=Richard Emerson |last2=Becker |first2=Alton L. |author-link2=Alton L. Becker |last3=Pike |first3=Kenneth L. |author-link3=Kenneth Lee Pike |date=1970 |title=Rhetoric: Discovery and Change |location=New York |publisher=[[Harcourt, Brace & World]] |pages=[https://archive.org/details/rhetoricdiscover0000youn/page/n26 1–10], [https://archive.org/details/rhetoricdiscover0000youn/page/273 273–290] |isbn=978-0-15-576895-6 |oclc=76890 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/rhetoricdiscover0000youn}}</ref> The Rogerian method of argument involves each side restating the other's position to the satisfaction of the other, among other principles.<ref name=YBP /> In a paper, it can be expressed by carefully acknowledging and understanding the opposition, rather than dismissing them.<ref name=YBP /><ref>A paper by Rogers that greatly influenced [[Rogerian rhetoric]] was: {{cite journal |last=Rogers |first=Carl R. |author-link=Carl Rogers |date=Winter 1952 |orig-year=1951 |title=Communication: its blocking and its facilitation |journal=ETC: A Review of General Semantics |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=83–88 |jstor=42581028}} This paper was written for [[Northwestern University]]'s Centennial Conference on Communications held on 11 October 1951. It was later reprinted as a book chapter with a different title: {{cite book |last=Rogers |first=Carl R. |author-link=Carl Rogers |date=1961 |chapter=Dealing with breakdowns in communication—interpersonal and intergroup |title=On Becoming a Person: A Therapist's View of Psychotherapy |location=Boston |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin]] |pages=[https://archive.org/details/onbecomingperson00roge/page/329 329–337] |oclc=172718 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/onbecomingperson00roge/page/329 |chapter-url-access=registration}} It was also reprinted in Young, Becker, and Pike's textbook that popularized Rogerian rhetoric.</ref>

=== Cross-cultural relations ===
The application to cross-cultural relations has involved workshops in highly stressful situations and global locations, including conflicts and challenges in South Africa, Central America, and Ireland.<ref name="StrasserRandolph2004">{{cite book|author1=Freddie Strasser|author2=Paul Randolph|title=Mediation: A Psychological Insight Into Conflict Resolution|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bHiUxPcizvUC&pg=PA13|date=30 December 2004|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-0-8264-7503-9|pages=13}}</ref> Rogers, Alberto Zucconi, and Charles Devonshire co-founded the Istituto dell'Approccio Centrato sulla Persona (Person-Centered Approach Institute) in Rome, Italy.

Rogers's international work for peace culminated in the Rust Peace Workshop, which took place in November 1985 in [[Rust, Austria]]. Leaders from 17 nations convened to discuss the topic "The Central America Challenge". The meeting was notable for several reasons: it brought national figures together as people (not as their positions), it was a private event, and was an overwhelming positive experience where members heard one another and established real personal ties, as opposed to stiffly formal and regulated diplomatic meetings.<ref>{{cite book|last=Rogers|first=Carl|title=The Carl Rogers Reader|year=1989|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|location=Google Books|url=https://archive.org/details/carlrogersreader0000roge|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/carlrogersreader0000roge/page/457 457]|quote=1985 the rust peace workshop.|isbn=978-0-395-48357-2}}</ref>

=== Person-centered, dialogic politics ===
Some scholars believe there is a politics implicit in Rogers's approach to psychotherapy.<ref name=Thorne>Thorne, Brian, with Sanders, Pete (2012). ''Carl Rogers''. SAGE Publications, 3rd ed., pp. 119–120. {{ISBN|978-1-4462-5223-9}}.</ref><ref name=Proctor>Proctor, Gillian; Cooper, Mick; Sanders, Pete; and Malcolm, Beryl, eds. (2006). ''Politicizing the Person-Centered Approach: An Agenda for Social Change''. PCCS Books. {{ISBN|978-1-898059-72-1}}.</ref> Toward the end of his life, Rogers came to that view himself.<ref>Totton, Nick (2000). ''Psychotherapy and Politics''. SAGE Publications, p. 68. {{ISBN|978-0-7619-5849-9}}.</ref> The central tenet of Rogerian, person-centered politics is that public life need not consist of an endless series of winner-take-all battles among sworn opponents; rather, it can and should consist of an ongoing dialogue among all parties. Such dialogue is characterized by respect among the parties, authentic speaking by each, and—ultimately—empathic understanding among all parties. Out of such understanding, mutually acceptable solutions will (or at least can) flow.<ref name=Thorne /><ref name=Kirschenbaum>Kirschenbaum, Howard, and Henderson, Valerie Land. "A More Human World." In Kirschenbaum and Hendersion, eds. (1989). ''The Carl Rogers Reader''. Houghton Mifflin Company, pp. 433–435. {{ISBN|978-0-395-48357-2}}.</ref>

During his last decade, Rogers facilitated or participated in a wide variety of dialogic activities among politicians, activists, and other social leaders, often outside the U.S.<ref name=Kirschenbaum /> He also lent his support to several non-traditional U.S. political initiatives, including the "12-Hour Political Party" of the [[Association for Humanistic Psychology]]<ref>Multiple authors (May 1980). "[http://www.ahpweb.org/images/stories/archive_pdfs/1980/May1980.pdf A Report on AHP's 12-Hour Political Party] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191029021813/https://www.ahpweb.org/images/stories/archive_pdfs/1980/May1980.pdf |date=2019-10-29 }}". ''AHP Newsletter'', cover and pp. 4 ("Presenters"), 28–31, 41–43. A publication of the Association for Humanistic Psychology. Retrieved August 1, 2016.</ref> and the founding of a "transformational" political organization, the [[New World Alliance]].<ref>Stein, Arthur (1985). ''Seeds of the Seventies: Values, Work, and Commitment in Post-Vietnam America''. University Press of New England, p. 136 (on Rogers as "founding sponsor" of the Alliance's newsletter) and pp. 134–139 (on the Alliance generally). {{ISBN|978-0-87451-343-1}}.</ref> By the 21st century, interest in dialogic approaches to political engagement and change had become widespread, especially among academics and activists.<ref>Isenhart, Myra Warren, and Spangle, Michael L. (2000). ''Collaborative Approaches to Resolving Conflict''. SAGE Publications. {{ISBN|978-0-7619-1930-8}}.</ref> Theorists of a specifically Rogerian, person-centered approach to politics as dialogue have made substantial contributions to that project.<ref name=Proctor /><ref>Proctor, Gillian, and Napier, Mary Beth, eds. (2004). ''Encountering Feminism: Intersections Between Feminism and the Person-Centered Approach''. PCCS Books. {{ISBN|978-1-898059-65-3}}.</ref>