Editing Carl Linnaeus (section)

==Years in the Dutch Republic (1735–38)==
[[File:Albertus Seba - Hydra.jpg|thumb|right|The Hamburg Hydra, from the ''{{lang|la|Thesaurus}}'' (1734) of [[Albertus Seba]]. Linnaeus identified the hydra specimen as a fake in 1735.]]
[[File:Hartekamp-2011.jpg|right|thumb|View of [[Hartekamp]], where Carl von Linné lived and studied for three years, from 1735 until 1738]]
[[File:Musa Cliffortiana 1736.jpg|thumb|upright|Title page of ''[[:de:Musa Cliffortiana|Musa Cliffortiana]]'' (1736), Linnaeus's first botanical monograph]]
[[File:Hortus Cliffortianus 1737.jpg|thumb|upright|Title page of ''[[Hortus Cliffortianus]]'' (1737). The work was a collaboration between Linnaeus and [[Georg Dionysius Ehret]], financed by [[George Clifford III]], one of the directors of the [[Dutch East India Company|VOC]].]]

===Doctorate===
[[File:Karte Linne.png|thumb|right|Cities where he worked; those outside Sweden were only visited during 1735–1738]]
His relations with Nils Rosén having worsened, Linnaeus accepted an invitation from Claes Sohlberg, son of a mining inspector, to spend the Christmas holiday in [[Falun]], where Linnaeus was permitted to visit the mines.<ref>[[#Blunt2001|Blunt (2001)]], p. 74.</ref>

In April 1735, at the suggestion of Sohlberg's father, Linnaeus and Sohlberg set out for the [[Dutch Republic]], where Linnaeus intended to study medicine at the [[University of Harderwijk]]<ref>[[#Stöver|Stöver (1794)]], p. 71.</ref> while tutoring Sohlberg in exchange for an annual salary. At the time, it was common for Swedes to pursue doctoral degrees in the [[Netherlands]], then a highly revered place to study natural history.<ref>[[#Blunt2001|Blunt (2001)]], pp. 78–79.</ref>

On the way, the pair stopped in [[Hamburg]], where they met the mayor, who proudly showed them a supposed wonder of nature in his possession: the [[taxidermy|taxidermied]] remains of a seven-headed [[Lernaean Hydra|hydra]]. Linnaeus quickly discovered the specimen was a [[hoax|fake]], cobbled together from the jaws and paws of weasels and the skins of snakes. The provenance of the hydra suggested to Linnaeus that it had been manufactured by monks to represent the [[The Beast (Bible)|Beast of Revelation]]. Even at the risk of incurring the mayor's wrath, Linnaeus made his observations public, dashing the mayor's dreams of selling the hydra for an enormous sum. Linnaeus and Sohlberg were forced to flee from Hamburg.<ref name="Anderson60-61">[[#Anderson|Anderson (1997)]], pp. 60–61.</ref><ref>[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], p. 90.</ref>

Linnaeus began working towards his degree as soon as he reached [[Harderwijk]], a university known for awarding degrees in as little as a week.<ref name="Blunt94"/> He submitted a dissertation, written back in Sweden, entitled ''Dissertatio medica inauguralis in qua exhibetur hypothesis nova de febrium intermittentium causa'',<ref group=note name=dissertatio>That is, ''Inaugural thesis in medicine, in which a new hypothesis on the cause of intermittent fevers is presented''</ref> in which he laid out his hypothesis that [[malaria]] arose only in areas with clay-rich soils.<ref name=hempelmann>{{cite journal|last1=Hempelmann|first1=Ernst|last2=Krafts|first2=Kristine|title=Bad air, amulets and mosquitoes: 2,000 years of changing perspectives on malaria|journal=Malaria Journal|year=2013|volume=12|issue=1|page=232|doi=10.1186/1475-2875-12-232|pmid=23835014|pmc=3723432 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Although he failed to identify the true source of disease transmission, (i.e., the ''[[Anopheles]]'' [[mosquito]]),<ref>[http://www.linnaeus.uu.se/online/animal/4_1.html Linnaeus's thesis on the ague (malaria)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140812174203/http://www.linnaeus.uu.se/online/animal/4_1.html |date=12 August 2014 }}, 2008, Uppsala University.</ref> he did correctly predict that ''[[Artemisia annua]]'' ([[artemisinins|wormwood]]) would become a source of [[antimalarial]] medications.<ref name=hempelmann/>

Within two weeks he had completed his oral and practical examinations and was awarded a doctoral degree.<ref name="Anderson60-61"/><ref name="Blunt94">[[#Blunt2001|Blunt (2001)]], p. 94.</ref>

That summer Linnaeus reunited with [[Peter Artedi]], a friend from Uppsala with whom he had once made a pact that should either of the two predecease the other, the survivor would finish the decedent's work. Ten weeks later, Artedi drowned in the [[canals of Amsterdam]], leaving behind an unfinished manuscript on the classification of fish.<ref>[[#Anderson|Anderson (1997)]], p. 66.</ref><ref>[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], pp. 98–100.</ref>

===Publishing of ''{{lang|la|Systema Naturae}}''===
One of the first scientists Linnaeus met in the Netherlands was [[Jan Frederik Gronovius|Johan Frederik Gronovius]], to whom Linnaeus showed one of the several manuscripts he had brought with him from Sweden. The manuscript described a new system for classifying plants. When Gronovius saw it, he was very impressed, and offered to help pay for the printing. With an additional monetary contribution by the Scottish doctor [[Isaac Lawson]], the manuscript was published as ''{{lang|la|[[Systema Naturae]]}}'' (1735).<ref>[[#Blunt2001|Blunt (2001)]], p. 98.</ref><ref>[[#Anderson|Anderson (1997)]], pp. 62–63.</ref>

Linnaeus became acquainted with one of the most respected physicians and botanists in the Netherlands, [[Herman Boerhaave]], who tried to convince Linnaeus to make a career there. Boerhaave offered him a journey to South Africa and America, but Linnaeus declined, stating he would not stand the heat. Instead, Boerhaave convinced Linnaeus that he should visit the botanist [[Johannes Burman]]. After his visit, Burman, impressed with his guest's knowledge, decided Linnaeus should stay with him during the winter. During his stay, Linnaeus helped Burman with his ''{{lang|la|Thesaurus Zeylanicus}}''. Burman also helped Linnaeus with the books on which he was working: ''{{lang|la|Fundamenta Botanica}}'' and ''{{lang|la|Bibliotheca Botanica}}''.<ref name="Blunt100-102">[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], pp. 100–102.</ref>

===George Clifford, Philip Miller, and Johann Jacob Dillenius===
{{multiple image|footer = Leaf forms from ''{{lang|la|[[Hortus Cliffortianus]]}}''|image1 = Hortus Cliffortianus folia simpl.png|alt1=Folia Simplicia|width1=107|image2=Hortus Cliffortianus folia compos.png|alt2=Folia Composita et Folia Determinata|width2=106}}

In August 1735, during Linnaeus's stay with Burman, he met [[George Clifford III]], a director of the [[Dutch East India Company]] and the owner of a rich botanical garden at the estate of [[Hartekamp]] in [[Heemstede]]. Clifford was very impressed with Linnaeus's ability to classify plants, and invited him to become his physician and superintendent of his garden. Linnaeus had already agreed to stay with Burman over the winter, and could thus not accept immediately. However, Clifford offered to compensate Burman by offering him a copy of [[Hans Sloane|Sir Hans Sloane's]] ''Natural History of Jamaica'', a rare book, if he let Linnaeus stay with him, and Burman accepted.<ref>[[#Anderson|Anderson (1997)]], p. 64.</ref><ref>[[#Stöver|Stöver (1794)]], pp. 81–82.</ref> On 24 September 1735, Linnaeus moved to Hartekamp to become personal physician to Clifford, and curator of Clifford's herbarium. He was paid 1,000 [[florin]]s a year, with free board and lodging. Though the agreement was only for a winter of that year, Linnaeus practically stayed there until 1738.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shurtleff|first1=William|last2=Aoyagi|first2=Akiko|title=History of Soybeans and Soyfoods in Sweden, Norway, Denmark and Finland (1735–2015): Extensively Annotated Bibliography and Sourcebook|year=2015|publisher=Soyinfo Center|location=California|isbn=978-1-928914-80-8|page=222|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0gtpCgAAQBAJ}}</ref> It was here that he wrote a book ''Hortus Cliffortianus'', in the preface of which he described his experience as "the happiest time of my life". (A portion of Hartekamp was declared as public garden in April 1956 by the Heemstede local authority, and was named "Linnaeushof".<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Tanner|first1=Vasco M.|title=Carl Linnaeus contributions and collections|journal=The Great Basin Naturalist|year=1959|volume=19|issue=1|pages=27–34|url=https://journals.lib.byu.edu/spc/index.php/wnan/article/viewFile/30161/28624|access-date=17 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160310055525/https://journals.lib.byu.edu/spc/index.php/wnan/article/viewFile/30161/28624|archive-date=10 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> It eventually became, as it is claimed, the biggest playground in Europe.<ref>{{cite web|title=Linnaeushof|url=http://www.holland.com/global/tourism/article/linnaeushof-1.htm|website=Hollan.com|access-date=17 February 2016|date=17 January 2013|archive-date=2 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202033807/http://www.holland.com/global/tourism/article/linnaeushof-1.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>)

In July 1736, Linnaeus travelled to England, at Clifford's expense.<ref>[[#Blunt2001|Blunt (2001)]], pp. 106–107.</ref> He went to London to visit Sir Hans Sloane, a collector of natural history, and to see his [[cabinet of curiosities|cabinet]],<ref>[[#Stöver|Stöver (1794)]], p. 89.</ref> as well as to visit the [[Chelsea Physic Garden]] and its keeper, [[Philip Miller]]. He taught Miller about his new system of subdividing plants, as described in ''{{lang|la|Systema Naturae}}''. At first, Miller was reluctant to use the new [[binomial nomenclature]], preferring instead the classifications of [[Joseph Pitton de Tournefort]] and [[John Ray]]. Nevertheless, Linnaeus applauded Miller's ''Gardeners Dictionary''.<ref>''Non erit Lexicon Hortulanorum, sed etiam Botanicorum'', that the book will be, not just a lexicon of gardeners, but of botanists."; noted in Paterson 1986:40–41.</ref> The conservative Miller actually retained in his dictionary a number of pre-Linnaean binomial signifiers discarded by Linnaeus but which have been retained by modern botanists. He only fully changed to the Linnaean system in the edition of ''[[The Gardeners Dictionary]]'' of 1768. Miller ultimately was impressed, and from then on started to arrange the garden according to Linnaeus's system.<ref>[[#Stöver|Stöver (1794)]], pp. 89–90.</ref>

Linnaeus also travelled to Oxford University to visit the botanist [[Johann Jacob Dillenius]]. He failed to make Dillenius publicly fully accept his new classification system, though the two men remained in correspondence for many years afterwards. Linnaeus dedicated his ''Critica Botanica'' to him, as "''opus botanicum quo absolutius mundus non-vidit''". Linnaeus would later name a genus of tropical tree Dillenia in his honour. He then returned to Hartekamp, bringing with him many specimens of rare plants.<ref>[[#Stöver|Stöver (1794)]], pp. 90–93.</ref> The next year, 1737, he published ''{{lang|la|[[Genera Plantarum]]}}'', in which he described 935 [[Genus|genera]] of plants, and shortly thereafter he supplemented it with ''{{lang|la|Corollarium Generum Plantarum}}'', with another sixty (''sexaginta'') genera.<ref>[[#Stöver|Stöver (1794)]], p. 95.</ref>

His work at Hartekamp led to another book, ''{{lang|la|[[Hortus Cliffortianus]]}}'', a catalogue of the botanical holdings in the herbarium and botanical garden of Hartekamp. He wrote it in nine months (completed in July 1737), but it was not published until 1738.<ref name="Blunt100-102"/> It contains the first use of the name ''[[Nepenthes]]'', which Linnaeus used to describe a genus of [[pitcher plant]]s.<ref>[[#Veitch|Veitch (1897)]]</ref><ref group=note name=nepenthes>"If this is not Helen's ''[[Nepenthe]]s'', it certainly will be for all botanists. What botanist would not be filled with admiration if, after a long journey, he should find this wonderful plant. In his astonishment past ills would be forgotten when beholding this admirable work of the Creator!" (translated from Latin by [[Harry Veitch]])</ref>

Linnaeus stayed with Clifford at Hartekamp until 18 October 1737 (new style), when he left the house to return to Sweden. Illness and the kindness of Dutch friends obliged him to stay some months longer in Holland. In May 1738, he set out for Sweden again. On the way home, he stayed in Paris for about a month, visiting botanists such as [[Antoine de Jussieu]]. After his return, Linnaeus never again left Sweden.<ref>[[#Blunt2001|Blunt (2001)]], p. 123.</ref><ref name="Koerner56">[[#Koerner|Koerner (1999)]], p. 56.</ref>