Editing Cane toad (section)

==Distribution==
The cane toad is native to the Americas, and its range stretches from the [[Rio Grande Valley (Texas)|Rio Grande Valley]] in [[South Texas]] to the central [[Amazon basin|Amazon]] and southeastern [[Peru]], and some of the continental islands near [[Venezuela]] (such as [[Trinidad]] and [[Tobago]]).<ref name="Tyler1989p111" /><ref name="ZugZug1979p1-2">{{Harvnb|Zug|Zug|1979|pages=1–2}}</ref> This area encompasses both [[tropics|tropical]] and [[Semi-arid climate|semiarid]] environments. The density of the cane toad is significantly lower within its native distribution than in places where it has been introduced. In South America, the density was recorded to be 20 adults per {{convert|100|m|yd|abbr=on}} of shoreline, 1 to 2% of the density in Australia.<ref name="LampoDeLeo1998p392">{{Harvnb|Lampo|De Leo|1998|page=392}}</ref>

===As an introduced species===
The cane toad has been introduced to many regions of the world—particularly the Pacific—for the biological control of agricultural pests.<ref name="Tyler1989p111">{{Harvnb|Tyler|1989|page=111}}</ref> These introductions have generally been well documented, and the cane toad may be one of the most studied of any [[introduced species]].<ref name="Easteall981p94">{{Harvnb|Easteal|1981|page=94}}</ref>

Before the early 1840s, the cane toad had been introduced into [[Martinique]] and [[Barbados]], from [[French Guiana]] and [[Guyana]].<ref name="Easteal1981p96">{{Harvnb|Easteal|1981|page=96}}</ref> An introduction to [[Jamaica]] was made in 1844 in an attempt to reduce the rat population.<ref name="Lannoo2005p417">{{Harvnb|Lannoo|2005|page=417}}</ref> Despite its failure to control the rodents, the cane toad was introduced to [[Puerto Rico]] in the early 20th century in the hope that it would counter a beetle infestation ravaging the sugarcane plantations. The Puerto Rican scheme was successful and halted the economic damage caused by the beetles, prompting scientists in the 1930s to promote it as an ideal solution to agricultural pests.<ref name="Tyler1989p112-113">{{Harvnb|Tyler|1989|pages=112–113}}</ref>

As a result, many countries in the Pacific region emulated the lead of Puerto Rico and introduced the toad in the 1930s.<ref name="Tyler1989p113-114">{{Harvnb|Tyler|1989|pages=113–114}}</ref> Introduced populations are in [[Australia]], [[Florida]],<ref name="Smith2005p433-441">{{Harvnb|Smith|2005|pages=433–441}}</ref> [[Papua New Guinea]],<ref name="ZugLindgremPippet1975p31-50">{{Harvnb|Zug|Lindgrem|Pippet|1975|pages=31–50}}</ref> the [[Philippines]],<ref name="Alcala1957p90-96">{{Harvnb|Alcala|1957|pages=90–96}}</ref> the [[Ogasawara Islands|Ogasawara]], [[Ishigaki Island]] and the [[Daitō Islands]] of Japan,<ref name="KideraEtAl2008p423-440">{{Harvnb|Kidera|Tandavanitj|Oh|Nakanishi|2008|pages=423–440}}</ref> [[Taiwan]] [[Nantou County|Nantou]] [[Caotun]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2021/12/07/2003769158|title=Cane toad invasion raises alarm in Nantou|last=Sean Chang|first=Sean Chang|publisher=Sean Chang|date=December 7, 2021|website=Taiwan News of Taipeitimes|access-date=October 16, 2022}}</ref> most Caribbean islands,<ref name="Tyler1989p113-114"/> [[Fiji]] and many other Pacific islands,<ref name="Tyler1989p113-114"/> including [[Hawaii]].<ref name="OliverShaw1953p65-95">{{Harvnb|Oliver|Shaw|1953|pages=65–95}}</ref><ref name="Hinckley1963p253-259">{{Harvnb|Hinckley|1963|pages=253–259}}</ref> Since then, the cane toad has become a pest in many host countries, and poses a serious threat to native animals.<ref name="Tyler1989p113" />

===Australia===
{{Main|Cane toads in Australia}}Following the apparent success of the cane toad in eating the beetles threatening the sugarcane plantations of Puerto Rico, and the fruitful introductions into Hawaiʻi and the Philippines, a strong push was made for the cane toad to be released in Australia to negate the pests ravaging the Queensland cane fields.<ref name="Tyler1976p77">{{Harvnb|Tyler|1976|page=77}}</ref> As a result, 102 toads were collected from Hawaiʻi and brought to Australia.<ref name="Easteall981p104">{{Harvnb|Easteal|1981|page=104}}</ref> Queensland's sugar scientists released the toad into cane fields in August 1935.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Cane toads : a tale of sugar, politics and flawed science|last=Turvey, Nigel D.|publisher=Sydney University Press|year=2013|isbn=9781743323595|location=Sydney, NSW|pages=3|oclc=857766002}}</ref> After this initial release, the Commonwealth Department of Health decided to ban future introductions until a study was conducted into the feeding habits of the toad. The study was completed in 1936 and the ban lifted, when large-scale releases were undertaken; by March 1937, 62,000 toadlets had been released into the wild.<ref name="Easteall981p104" /><ref name=autogenerated1>{{Harvnb|Tyler|1976|pages=78–79}}</ref> The toads became firmly established in Queensland, increasing exponentially in number and extending their range into the [[Northern Territory]] and [[New South Wales]].<ref name="Cameron2009" /><ref name="Easteall981p104" /> In 2010, one was found on the far western coast in [[Broome, Western Australia]].<ref>[http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/news/2010/07/cane-toad-found-on-wa-coast/ Cane toad found on WA coast], ''Australian Geographic'', July 21, 2010</ref>

However, the toad was generally unsuccessful in reducing the targeted grey-backed cane beetles (''[[Dermolepida albohirtum]]''), in part because the cane fields provided insufficient shelter for the predators during the day,<ref name="Tyler1976p83">{{Harvnb|Tyler|1976|page=83}}</ref> and in part because the beetles live at the tops of sugar cane—and cane toads are not good climbers.<ref name="Tyler1976p77"/> Since its original introduction, the cane toad has had a particularly marked effect on Australian [[biodiversity]]. The population of a number of native predatory reptiles has declined, such as the [[Monitor lizard|varanid]] lizards ''[[Varanus mertensi]]'', ''[[Varanus mitchelli|V. mitchelli]]'', and ''[[Varanus panoptes|V. panoptes]]'', the land snakes ''[[Pseudechis australis]]'' and ''[[Acanthophis antarcticus]]'', and the freshwater crocodile species ''[[Freshwater crocodile|Crocodylus johnstoni]]''; in contrast, the population of the [[agamidae|agamid]] lizard ''[[Amphibolurus gilberti]]''—known to be a prey item of ''V. panoptes''—has increased.<ref name="DoodyEtAl2009p46-53">{{Harvnb|Doody|Green|Rhind|Castellano|2009|pages=46–53}}. On snake populations see {{Harvnb|Shine|2009|p=20}}.</ref> [[Meat ant]]s, however, are able to kill cane toads.<ref name="meat_ants_2022">[https://aepma.com.au/PestDetail/10/Meat ''Meat Ant.''] Australian Environmental Pest Managers Association (AEPMA) (accessed July 2022)</ref> The cane toad has also been linked to decreases in [[northern quoll]]s in the southern region of [[Kakadu National Park]] and even their [[local extinction]].<ref name=environment>{{Cite web|url = https://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/key-threatening-processes/biological-effects-cane-toads|title = The biological effects, including lethal toxic ingestion, caused by Cane Toads (''Bufo marinus'')|date = April 12, 2005|access-date = October 29, 2015|website = www.environment.gov.au}}</ref>

===Caribbean===
The cane toad was introduced to various Caribbean islands to counter a number of pests infesting local crops.<ref name="Lever2001p67">{{Harvnb|Lever|2001|page=67}}</ref> While it was able to establish itself on some islands, such as [[Barbados]], [[Jamaica]], [[Hispaniola]] and [[Puerto Rico]], other introductions, such as in [[Cuba]] before 1900 and in 1946, and on the islands of [[Dominica]] and [[Grand Cayman]], were unsuccessful.<ref name="Lever2001p73-74">{{Harvnb|Lever|2001|pages=73–74}}</ref>

The earliest recorded introductions were to Barbados and [[Martinique]]. The Barbados introductions were focused on the biological control of pests damaging the sugarcane crops,<ref name="Lever2001p71">{{Harvnb|Lever|2001|page=71}}</ref> and while the toads became abundant, they have done even less to control the pests than in Australia.<ref name="KennedyLever2001p72">Kennedy, Anthony quoted in {{Harvnb|Lever|2001|page=72}}</ref> The toad was introduced to Martinique from [[French Guiana]] before 1944 and became established. Today, they reduce the [[mosquito]] and [[mole cricket]] populations.<ref name="Lever2001p81">{{Harvnb|Lever|2001|page=81}}</ref> A third introduction to the region occurred in 1884, when toads appeared in Jamaica, reportedly imported from Barbados to help control the rodent population. While they had no significant effect on the rats, they nevertheless became well established.<ref name="Lever2001p78-79">{{Harvnb|Lever|2001|pages=78–79}}</ref> Other introductions include the release on [[Antigua]]—possibly before 1916, although this initial population may have died out by 1934 and been reintroduced at a later date<ref name="Easteal1981p98">{{Harvnb|Easteal|1981|page=98}}</ref>—and [[Montserrat]], which had an introduction before 1879 that led to the establishment of a solid population, which was apparently sufficient to survive the [[Soufrière Hills|Soufrière Hills volcano]] eruption in 1995.<ref name="Lever2001p81-82">{{Harvnb|Lever|2001|pages=81–82}}</ref>

In 1920, the cane toad was introduced into Puerto Rico to control the populations of [[Phyllophaga|white grub]] (''Phyllophaga'' spp.), a sugarcane pest.<ref name="Tyler1989p112">{{Harvnb|Tyler|1989|page=112}}</ref> Before this, the pests were manually collected by humans, so the introduction of the toad eliminated labor costs.<ref name="Tyler1989p112" /> A second group of toads was imported in 1923, and by 1932, the cane toad was well established.<ref name="VanVolkenberg1935">{{Harvnb|Van Volkenberg|1935|pages=278–279}}. "After a completely successful method of killing white grubs by chemical means was found, the only opportunities for its use in Puerto Rico have been limited to small areas in pineapple plantations at elevations where the toad is even yet not present in sufficient abundance."</ref> The population of white grubs dramatically decreased,<ref name="Tyler1989p112" /> and this was attributed to the cane toad at the annual meeting of the International Sugar Cane Technologists in Puerto Rico.<ref name="Tyler1989p113">{{Harvnb|Tyler|1989|page=113}}</ref> However, there may have been other factors.<ref name="Tyler1989p113" /> The six-year period after 1931—when the cane toad was most prolific, and the white grub had a dramatic decline—had the highest-ever rainfall for Puerto Rico.<ref name="Freeland1985p211-215">{{Harvnb|Freeland|1985|pages=211–215}}</ref> Nevertheless, the cane toad was assumed to have controlled the white grub; this view was reinforced by a ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' article titled "Toads save sugar crop",<ref name="Tyler1989p113" /> and this led to large-scale introductions throughout many parts of the Pacific.<ref name="Tyler1989p113-115">{{Harvnb|Tyler|1989|pages=113–115}}</ref>

The cane toad has been spotted in [[Carriacou]] and [[Dominica]], the latter appearance occurring in spite of the failure of the earlier introductions.<ref name="Lever2001p72-73">{{Harvnb|Lever|2001|pages=72–73}}</ref>  On September 8, 2013, the cane toad was also discovered on the island of [[New Providence]] in the Bahamas.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tribune242.com/news/2013/sep/06/killer-toad-found-new-providence/|title=Killer Toad Found in New Providence |publisher=Tribute 242|access-date=2013-09-07}}</ref>

===The Philippines===
[[File:Bufo marinus (Philippines).jpg|thumb|''R. marina'' in the [[Philippines]] are referred to as ''kamprag'', a corruption of 'American frog'.<ref name="kamprag"/>]]

The cane toad was first introduced deliberately into the [[Philippines]] in 1930 as a biological control agent of pests in sugarcane plantations, after the success of the experimental introductions into Puerto Rico.<ref name="piper">{{cite book|author=Ross Piper|title =Pests: A Guide to the World's Most Maligned, Yet Misunderstood Creatures|publisher =ABC-CLIO|year =2011|page=236|isbn =978-0-313-38426-4|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=nlSX5kDnd78C&q=Bufo%20marinus%20philippines%201930&pg=PA236|author-link =Ross Piper}}</ref><ref name="diesmos">{{cite journal|author1=Arvin C. Diesmos |author2=Mae L. Diesmos |author3=Rafe M. Brown |year=2005|title=Status and Distribution of Alien Invasive Frogs in the Philippines |journal=Journal of Environmental Science and Management |volume=9|issue=2|pages=41–53|issn=0119-1144}}</ref> It subsequently became the most ubiquitous amphibian in the islands. It still retains the common name of ''bakî'' or ''kamprag'' in the [[Visayan languages]], a [[Corruption (linguistics)|corruption]] of 'American frog', referring to its origins.<ref name="kamprag">{{cite web|url=http://www.binisaya.com/cebuano/kamprag|title=kamprag|publisher=Binisaya.com}}</ref> It is also commonly known as "bullfrog" in Philippine English.<ref name="dedicatoria">{{cite conference|author1=Ranell Martin M. Dedicatoria|author2=Carmelita M. Rebancos|author3=Leticia E. Afuang|author4=Ma. Victoria O. Espaldon|year=2010|title=Identifying Environmental Changes in Mt. Data Watershed, Bauko, Mt. Province, Northern Philippines: Implications to Sustainable Management |conference= 4th Asian Rural Sociology Association (ARSA) International Conference |pages=402–412 }}</ref>

===Fiji===
The cane toad was introduced into [[Fiji]] to combat insects that infested sugarcane plantations. The introduction of the cane toad to the region was first suggested in 1933, following the successes in Puerto Rico and Hawaiʻi. After considering the possible side effects, the national government of Fiji decided to release the toad in 1953, and 67 specimens were subsequently imported from Hawaiʻi.<ref name="Lever2001p128-129">{{Harvnb|Lever|2001|pages=128–129}}</ref> Once the toads were established, a 1963 study concluded, as the toad's diet included both harmful and beneficial invertebrates, it was considered "economically neutral".<ref name="Hinckley1963p253-259" /> Today, the cane toad can be found on all major islands in Fiji, although they tend to be smaller than their counterparts in other regions.<ref name="Lever2001p130-131">{{Harvnb|Lever|2001|pages=130–131}}</ref>

===New Guinea===
The cane toad was introduced into [[New Guinea]] to control the [[hawk moth]] larvae eating [[sweet potato]] crops.<ref name="ZugLindgremPippet1975p31-50" /> The first release occurred in 1937 using toads imported from Hawaiʻi, with a second release the same year using specimens from the Australian mainland. Evidence suggests a third release in 1938, consisting of toads being used for human [[pregnancy test]]s—many species of toad were found to be effective for this task, and were employed for about 20&nbsp;years after the discovery was announced in 1948.<ref name="Easteall981p103">{{Harvnb|Easteal|1981|page=103}}</ref><ref name="TylerWassersugSmith2007pp6-7">{{Harvnb|Tyler|Wassersug|Smith|2007|pages=6–7}}</ref> Initial reports argued the toads were effective in reducing the levels of [[cutworm]]s and sweet potato yields were thought to be improving.<ref name="Lever2001p118">{{Harvnb|Lever|2001|page=118}}</ref> As a result, these first releases were followed by further distributions across much of the region,<ref name="Lever2001p118" /> although their effectiveness on other crops, such as cabbages, has been questioned; when the toads were released at [[Wau, Papua New Guinea|Wau]], the cabbages provided insufficient shelter and the toads rapidly left the immediate area for the superior shelter offered by the forest.<ref name="Tyler1976pp83-84">{{Harvnb|Tyler|1976|pages=83–84}}</ref> A similar situation had previously arisen in the Australian cane fields, but this experience was either unknown or ignored in New Guinea.<ref name="Tyler1976pp83-84" /> The cane toad has since become abundant in rural and urban areas.<ref name="Lever2001p119">{{Harvnb|Lever|2001|page=119}}</ref>

===United States===
The cane toad naturally exists in [[South Texas]], but attempts (both deliberate and accidental) have been made to introduce the species to other parts of the country. These include introductions to [[Florida]] and to Hawaiʻi, as well as largely unsuccessful introductions to [[Louisiana]].<ref name="Easteal1981pp100-102">{{Harvnb|Easteal|1981|pages=100–102}}</ref>

Initial releases into Florida failed. Attempted introductions before 1936 and 1944, intended to control sugarcane pests, were unsuccessful as the toads failed to proliferate. Later attempts failed in the same way.<ref name="Lever2001p57">{{Harvnb|Lever|2001|page=57}}</ref><ref name="Easteal1981p100">{{Harvnb|Easteal|1981|page=100}}</ref> However, the toad gained a foothold in the state after an accidental release by an importer at [[Miami International Airport]] in 1957, and deliberate releases by animal dealers in 1963 and 1964 established the toad in other parts of Florida.<ref name="Easteal1981p100" /><ref name="Lever2001p58">{{Harvnb|Lever|2001|page=58}}</ref> Today, the cane toad is well established in the state, from the [[Florida Keys|Keys]] to north of [[Tampa, Florida|Tampa]], and they are gradually extending further northward.<ref name="Lever2001p59">{{Harvnb|Lever|2001|page=59}}</ref> In Florida, the toad is a regarded as a threat to native species<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wec.ufl.edu/extension/wildlife_info/frogstoads/bufo_marinus.php |title=''Bufo marinus'' @ Florida Wildlife Extension at UF/IFAS |website=Wec.ufl.edu |access-date=2010-04-26}}</ref> and pets;<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www2.tbo.com/content/2007/nov/02/021636/poisonous-bufo-may-have-toad-hold-temple-terrace/ |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130203202720/http://www2.tbo.com/content/2007/nov/02/021636/poisonous-bufo-may-have-toad-hold-temple-terrace/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=2013-02-03 |title=Poisonous Bufo May Have Toad Hold On Temple Terrace |publisher=.tbo.com |date=2007-11-02 |access-date=2010-04-26 }}</ref> so much so, the [[Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission]] recommends residents to kill them.{{sfn|Brandt|Mazzotti|2005}}

Around 150 cane toads were introduced to [[Oahu|Oʻahu]] in Hawaiʻi in 1932, and the population swelled to 105,517 after 17&nbsp;months.<ref name="Tyler1989p113-114"/> The toads were sent to the other islands, and more than 100,000 toads were distributed by July 1934;<ref name="Lever2001p64">{{Harvnb|Lever|2001|page=64}}</ref> eventually over 600,000 were transported.<ref name="Easteal1981p101">{{Harvnb|Easteal|1981|page=101}}</ref>