Editing Avocado (section)

== Cultivation ==

=== History ===
Domestication, leading to genetically distinct cultivars, possibly originated in the [[Tehuacan Valley]]<ref name="Landon 2009">{{cite journal |last1=Landon |first1=Amanda J. |date=2009 |title=Domestication and Significance of Persea americana, the Avocado, in Mesoamerica |url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1046&context=nebanthro |journal=Nebraska Anthropologist |volume=47}}</ref> in the state of [[Puebla]], Mexico.<ref name="Harvard">{{Cite journal |author1=Galindo-Tovar, María Elena |author2=Arzate-Fernández, Amaury M. |author3=Ogata-Aguilar, Nisao |author4=Landero-Torres, Ivonne |year=2007 |title=The avocado (''Persea americana'', Lauraceae) crop in Mesoamerica: 10,000 years of history |url=http://www.uv.mx/personal/megalindo/files/2010/07/GalindoTovar_325_334_V21.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Harvard Papers in Botany |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=325–334, [325] |doi=10.3100/1043-4534(2007)12[325:TAPALC]2.0.CO;2 |jstor=41761865 |s2cid=9998040 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151010145152/http://www.uv.mx/personal/megalindo/files/2010/07/GalindoTovar_325_334_V21.pdf |archive-date=10 October 2015}}</ref> There is evidence for three possible separate domestications of the avocado, resulting in the currently recognized Guatemalan (''quilaoacatl''), Mexican (''aoacatl'') and West Indian (''tlacacolaocatl'') [[landrace]]s.<ref name="Ayala SilvaLedesma2014" /><ref name="Schaffer 2013">{{cite book |last=Schaffer |first=B |title=The avocado: botany, production and uses |publisher=CABI |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-84593-701-0 |location=Wallingford, Oxfordshire, UK}}{{page needed|date=June 2018}}</ref> The Guatemalan and Mexican and landraces originated in the highlands of those countries, while the West Indian landrace is a lowland variety that ranges from Guatemala, Costa Rica, Colombia, Ecuador to Peru,<ref name="Ayala SilvaLedesma2014" /> achieving a wide range through human agency before the arrival of the Europeans.<ref name="Schaffer 2013" /> The three separate landraces were most likely to have already intermingled{{efn|Intermingled in a trade or cultural sense, but not necessarily a genetic one.}} in pre-Columbian America and were described in the [[Florentine Codex]].<ref name="Schaffer 2013" /> As a result of [[artificial selection]], the fruit and correspondingly the seeds of cultivated avocados became considerably larger relative to their earlier wild forebears millennia before the Columbian exchange.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Smith |first=C. Earle |date=April 1966 |title=Archeological evidence for selection in avocado |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/BF02904012 |journal=Economic Botany |language=en |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=169–175 |doi=10.1007/BF02904012 |bibcode=1966EcBot..20..169S |issn=0013-0001}}</ref>

The earliest residents of northern coastal Peru were living in temporary camps in an ancient wetland and eating avocados, along with chilies, mollusks, sharks, birds, and sea lions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dillehay |first1=Tom D |last2=Goodbred |first2=Steve |last3=Pino |first3=Mario |last4=Vásquez Sánchez |first4=Víctor F |last5=Tham |first5=Teresa Rosales |last6=Adovasio |first6=James |last7=Collins |first7=Michael B |last8=Netherly |first8=Patricia J |last9=Hastorf |first9=Christine A |last10=Chiou |first10=Katherine L |last11=Piperno |first11=Dolores |last12=Rey |first12=Isabel |last13=Velchoff |first13=Nancy |year=2017 |title=Simple technologies and diverse food strategies of the Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene at Huaca Prieta, Coastal Peru |journal=Science Advances |volume=3 |issue=5 |pages=e1602778 |bibcode=2017SciA....3E2778D |doi=10.1126/sciadv.1602778 |pmc=5443642 |pmid=28560337}}</ref> The oldest discovery of an avocado pit comes from [[Coxcatlan Cave]], dating from around 9,000 to 10,000 years ago.<ref name="Landon 2009" /><ref name="Schaffer 2013" /> Other caves in the [[Tehuacan Valley]] from around the same time period also show early evidence for the presence and consumption of avocado.<ref name="Landon 2009" /> There is evidence for avocado use at [[Norte Chico civilization]] sites in Peru by at least 3,200 years ago and at [[Caballo Muerto]] in Peru from around 3,800 to 4,500 years ago.<ref name="Landon 2009" />
[[File:Criollo avocados de Oaxaca.png|thumb|left|Native [[Oaxaca]] ''criollo'' avocados, the ancestral form of today's domesticated varieties]]The avocado tree also has a long history of cultivation in Central and South America, likely beginning as early as 5,000 BC.<ref name="Harvard" /> A water jar shaped like an avocado, dating to AD 900, was discovered in the pre-[[Inca]] city of [[Chan Chan]].<ref name="turtle">{{cite web |last=Barry |first=PC |date=7 April 2001 |title=Avocado: The Early Roots of Avocado History |url=http://www.turtletrack.org/Issues01/Co04072001/CO_04072001_Recipes.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071215142535/http://www.turtletrack.org/Issues01/Co04072001/CO_04072001_Recipes.htm |archive-date=15 December 2007 |access-date=29 December 2007 |url-status=usurped |publisher=Canku Ota}}</ref>

The plant was introduced to Spain in 1601, Indonesia around 1750, Mauritius in 1780, Brazil in 1809, the United States mainland in 1825, South Africa and Australia in the late 19th century, and the Ottoman Empire in 1908.<ref name="Schaffer 2013" /> In the United States, the avocado was introduced to Florida and Hawaii in 1833 and in California in 1856.<ref name="Schaffer 2013" />

The name ''avocado'' has been used in English since at least 1764, with minor spelling variants such as ''avogato'' attested even earlier.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.oed.com/dictionary/avocado_n |title=Oxford English Dictionary |date=1885 |publisher=Oxford University Press |chapter=''s.v.'' avocado}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Higgins |first1=J.E. |last2=Hunn |first2=C.J. |last3=Holt |first3=V.S. |date=April 1911 |title=The Avocado in Hawaii |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LMRBwSgL9r8C&dq=%22avocado%22&pg=RA2-PA36 |journal=Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin |issue=24}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Popenoe |first=F.W. |date=February 1911 |title=The Avocado in Southern California |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QblGAQAAMAAJ |journal=Pomona Journal of Economic Botany |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=3–24}}</ref> The avocado was commonly referred to in California as ''ahuacate'' and in Florida as ''alligator pear'' until 1915, when the [[California Avocado Society|California Avocado Association]] popularized the term ''avocado.''<ref name="Schaffer 2013" />

=== Requirements ===
[[File:Avocado Seedling.jpg|thumb|upright|''Persea americana'', young avocado plant (seedling), complete with parted pit and roots]]

As a [[subtropical]] species, avocados need a climate without frost and with little wind. High winds reduce the humidity, dehydrate the flowers, and affect pollination.{{original research inline|date=December 2022}} When even a mild frost occurs, premature fruit drop may occur; although the '[[Hass avocado|Hass]]' [[cultivar]] can tolerate temperatures down to −1&nbsp;°C.{{original research inline|date=December 2022}} Several cold-hardy varieties{{specify|date=December 2022}}{{which|date=December 2022}} are planted in the region of [[Gainesville, Florida]], which survive temperatures as low as {{convert|-6.5|C|0}} with only minor leaf damage. The trees also need well-aerated soils, ideally more than 1 m deep.{{original research inline|date=December 2022}} However, Guatemalan varieties such as "MacArthur", "Rincon", or "Nabal" can withstand temperatures down to {{convert|-1.6|C|0}}.<ref>Hessong, Athena.
[https://homeguides.sfgate.com/much-coldness-can-avocado-trees-take-55142.html How Much Coldness Can Avocado Trees Take?]. [[SF Gate]]. Retrieved on Dec. 4, 2022</ref>

According to information published by the [[Water footprint#Water Footprint Network (WFN)|Water Footprint Network]], it takes an average of approximately {{convert|70|L|USgal impgal|0|abbr=off}} of applied fresh ground or surface water, not including rainfall or natural moisture in the soil, to grow one avocado ({{cvt|283|L/kg|USgal/lb impgal/lb|disp=sqbr}}). However, the amount of water needed depends on where it is grown; for example, in the main avocado-growing region of Chile, about {{convert|320|L|USgal impgal|abbr=on}} of applied water are needed to grow one avocado ({{cvt|1,280|L/kg|USgal/lb impgal/lb|disp=sqbr}}).<ref name="Danwatch2019">{{cite web |title=How much water does it take to grow an avocado? |url=https://old.danwatch.dk/en/undersogelseskapitel/how-much-water-does-it-take-to-grow-an-avocado/ |website=Danwatch.dk |access-date=7 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191007172453/https://old.danwatch.dk/en/undersogelseskapitel/how-much-water-does-it-take-to-grow-an-avocado/ |archive-date=7 October 2019 |date=2019}}</ref>

Increasing demand and production of avocados may cause [[Water scarcity|water shortages]] in some avocado production areas, such as the Mexican state of [[Michoacán]].<ref name="footprint">{{cite journal | last1=Sommaruga | first1=Ruben | last2=Eldridge | first2=Honor May | title=Avocado production: Water footprint and socioeconomic implications | journal=EuroChoices | date=2020-12-13 | volume=20 | issue=2 | pages=48–53 | issn=1478-0917 | doi=10.1111/1746-692x.12289 | s2cid=230594487 | url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1746-692X.12289}}</ref><ref name="cbc">{{cite news |title=How green are avocados? (Yes, that's a trick question) |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/what-on-earth-newsletter-avocados-road-salt-light-pollution-1.4991627 |access-date=11 April 2021 |work=CBC |date=25 January 2019 |quote=Producing avocados is very water-intensive. The Water Footprint Network estimates it takes an average of 2,000 litres of water to produce one kilogram of avocados}}</ref> Avocados may also cause environmental and [[Socioeconomics|socioeconomic]] impacts in major production areas, illegal [[deforestation]], and [[Water conflict|water disputes]].<ref name=footprint/><ref name=cbc/> Water requirements for growing avocados are three times higher than for apples, and 18 times higher than for tomatoes.<ref name=cbc/>

=== Harvest and postharvest ===
Commercial orchards produce an average of seven tonnes per hectare each year, with some orchards achieving 20 tonnes per hectare.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/x6902e/x6902e04.htm |title = Avocado Production in Australia |last = Whiley|first = A|publisher = [[Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations]]|date = 1 September 2000|access-date = 29 December 2007| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080112135727/http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/x6902e/x6902e04.htm| archive-date= 12 January 2008 | url-status= live}}</ref> [[Biennial bearing]] can be a problem, with heavy crops in one year being followed by poor yields the next.

Like the banana, the avocado is a [[climacteric (botany)|climacteric]] fruit, which matures on the tree, but ripens off the tree. Avocados used in commerce are picked hard and green and kept in coolers at {{convert|3.3|to|5.6|C|F}} until they reach their final destination. Avocados must be mature to ripen properly. Avocados that fall off the tree ripen on the ground. Generally, the fruit is picked once it reaches maturity; Mexican growers pick 'Hass' avocados when they have more than 23% dry matter, and other producing countries have similar standards. Once picked, avocados ripen in one to two weeks (depending on the cultivar) at [[room temperature]] (faster if stored with other fruits such as apples or bananas, because of the influence of [[ethylene]] gas). Some supermarkets sell ripened avocados which have been treated with synthetic ethylene to hasten ripening.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mindfully.org/Plastic/Ethylene-Gas.htm |title=Ethylene gas and produce |publisher=Mindfully.org |date=1 June 1976 |access-date=12 May 2010| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100526120225/http://www.mindfully.org/Plastic/Ethylene-Gas.htm| archive-date= 26 May 2010 | url-status= live}}</ref> The use of an ethylene gas "ripening room", which is now an industry standard, was pioneered in the 1980s by farmer Gil Henry of [[Escondido, California]], in response to footage from a hidden supermarket camera which showed shoppers repeatedly squeezing hard, unripe avocados, putting them "back in the bin", and moving on without making a purchase.<ref>{{Cite news
| author = Steve Chawkins
| title = Gil Henry dies at 88; revolutionized avocado industry; Henry pioneered the use of a 'ripening room' at his family's Escondido farm. The method, now an industry standard, allows markets to sell fruit that is ready to eat or close to it.
| work = Los Angeles Times
| access-date = 4 June 2013
| date = 3 June 2013
| url = http://www.latimes.com/news/obituaries/la-me-gil-henry-20130603,0,3688440.story
}}</ref> In some cases, avocados can be left on the tree for several months, which is an advantage to commercial growers who seek the greatest return for their crop, but if the fruit remains unpicked for too long, it falls to the ground.

===Breeding===
[[File:Seedless Avocado in Mexico.jpg|thumb|upright|A seedless avocado, or cuke, growing next to two regular Ettinger avocados]]

The species is only partially able to [[self-pollination|self-pollinate]] because of [[Sequential hermaphroditism|dichogamy]] in its flowering. This limitation, added to the long juvenile period, makes the species difficult to breed. Most cultivars are propagated by [[grafting]], having originated from random seedling plants or minor [[mutation]]s derived from cultivars. Modern breeding programs tend to use isolation plots where the chances of cross-[[pollination]] are reduced. That is the case for programs at the [[University of California, Riverside]], as well as the [[Agricultural research In Israel#Agricultural Research Organization (ARO)|Volcani Centre]] and the Instituto de Investigaciones Agropecuarias in Chile.

The avocado is unusual in that the timing of the male and female flower phases differs among cultivars. The two flowering types are A and B. A-cultivar flowers open as female on the morning of the first day and close in late morning or early afternoon. Then they open as male in the afternoon of the second day. B varieties open as female on the afternoon of the first day, close in late afternoon and reopen as male the following morning.
* A cultivars: 'Hass', 'Gwen', 'Lamb Hass', 'Pinkerton', 'Reed'
* B cultivars: 'Fuerte', 'Sharwil', 'Zutano', 'Bacon', 'Ettinger', 'Sir Prize', 'Walter Hole'<ref>{{cite web|url = http://ceventura.ucdavis.edu/Agriculture265/Avocado_Handbook.htm|title = Agriculture Handbook|publisher = [[University of California]]|access-date = 29 December 2007|year = 2007|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071217095028/http://ceventura.ucdavis.edu/Agriculture265/Avocado_Handbook.htm|archive-date = 17 December 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url = http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/MG213|title = Avocado Growing in the Florida Home Landscape|publisher = [[University of Florida]]|first = JH|last = Crane|author2=Balerdi CF|author3=Maguire I|access-date = 29 December 2007|date = 1 August 2007| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080113011328/http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/MG213| archive-date= 13 January 2008 | url-status= live}}</ref>

Certain cultivars, such as the 'Hass', have a tendency to bear well only in alternate years. After a season with a low yield, due to factors such as cold (which the avocado does not tolerate well), the trees tend to produce abundantly the next season. In addition, due to environmental circumstances during some years, seedless avocados may appear on the trees.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.soilzone.com/Library/Crops/Avocado/Phenology/Avocado%20fruit%20growth.pdf|title=Development of Seeded and Seedless Avocado Fruit|work=Agricultural Research Organization, Volcani Center, Bet-Dagan, Israel|author1=Blumenfeld, Amos|author2=Gazit, Shmuel|access-date=21 September 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140125180713/http://soilzone.com/Library/Crops/Avocado/Phenology/Avocado%20fruit%20growth.pdf|archive-date=25 January 2014}}</ref> Known in the avocado industry as "cukes", they are usually discarded commercially due to their small size.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.avocadosource.com/CAS_Yearbooks/CAS_33_1948/CAS_1948_PG_113-116.pdf|journal=California Avocado Society 1948 Yearbook|author1=Stewart, W.S. |author2=Smoyer, K.M. |author3=Puffer, R.E. |title=Progress Report on Effects of Plant Growth Regulator Sprays on Avocados|access-date=21 September 2010|volume=33|pages=113–116}}</ref>

===Propagation and rootstocks===
[[File:GrowingAvocadoFromSeed.JPG|thumb|A common technique to germinate avocados at home is to use toothpicks poked into the avocado pit to suspend the pit partially in water.]]
[[File:Persea americana (Avocado) Sprout 08May2010.JPG|thumb|upright|Young avocado sprout]]

Avocados can be propagated by seed, taking roughly four to six years to bear fruit, although in some cases seedlings can take 10 years to come into bearing.<ref>{{cite book|last=Boning|first=Charles|title=Florida's Best Fruiting Plants: Native and Exotic Trees, Shrubs, and Vines|year=2006|publisher=Pineapple Press, Inc.|location=Sarasota, Florida|page=33}}</ref> The offspring is unlikely to be identical to the parent cultivar in fruit quality. Prime quality varieties are therefore propagated by grafting to [[rootstock]]s that are propagated by seed (seedling rootstocks) or by [[layering]] (clonal rootstocks). After about a year of growing in a greenhouse, the young rootstocks are ready to be grafted. Terminal and lateral grafting is normally used. The [[scion (grafting)|scion]] cultivar grows for another 6–12 months before the tree is ready to be sold. Clonal rootstocks are selected for tolerance of specific soil and disease conditions, such as poor soil aeration or resistance to the soil-borne disease (root rot) caused by ''[[Phytophthora cinnamomi]]''. Advances in cloning techniques that can produce up to 500 new plants from a single millimetre of tree cutting have the potential to increase the availability of rootstocks.<ref>Hughes, Megan [https://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2021-06-07/innovation-smashes-avocado-wait-times/100184924 Avocado tree wait times smashed thanks to world-first rootstock trial] ''ABC News'', 7 June 2021. Retrieved 5 October 2020.</ref>

Commercial avocado production is limited to a small fraction of the vast genetic diversity in the species. Conservation of this genetic diversity has relied largely on field collection, as avocado seeds often do not survive storage in seed banks. This is problematic, as field preservation of living cultivars is expensive, and habitat loss threatens wild cultivars. More recently, an alternate method of conservation has been developed based on cryopreservation of avocado somatic embryos with reliable methods for somatic embryogenesis and reconstitution into living trees.<ref>O'Brien, Christopher, Jayeni CA Hiti-Bandaralage, Alice Hayward, and Neena Mitter. "Avocado (Persea americana Mill.)." In Step Wise Protocols for Somatic Embryogenesis of Important Woody Plants, pp. 305–328. Springer, Cham, 2018.</ref><ref>Nichols, Jennifer [https://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2020-09-10/avocados-preservation-science-cryopreservation/12643822 Avocadoes of the future look secure thanks to Queensland student Chris O'Brien's cryogenics work] ''ABC News'', 10 September 2020. Retrieved 5 October 2020.</ref>

===As a houseplant===
[[File:20cm avocado leaf.JPG|thumb|Avocado houseplant leaf with ruler to indicate size]]

The avocado tree can be grown domestically and used as a decorative [[houseplant]]. The pit germinates in normal soil conditions or partially submerged in a small glass (or container) of water. In the latter method, the pit sprouts in four to six weeks, at which time it is planted in standard houseplant potting soil. The plant normally grows large enough to be prunable; it does not bear fruit unless it has ample sunlight. Home gardeners can [[Grafting|graft]] a branch from a fruit-bearing plant to speed maturity, which typically takes four to six years to bear fruit.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.garden.eco/avocado-houseplant|title = Avocado Houseplant » Top Tips for Lush Indoor Foliage|date = 11 November 2017}}</ref>

===Pests and diseases===
{{main|List of avocado diseases}}
[[File:Persea americana.jpg|thumb|''P. americana'', avocado plant flowers]]

Avocado trees are vulnerable to bacterial, [[virus|viral]], [[fungus|fungal]], and nutritional diseases (excesses and deficiencies of key minerals). Disease can affect all parts of the plant, causing spotting, rotting, cankers, pitting, and discoloration.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.apsnet.org/publications/commonnames/Pages/Avocado.aspx |first1=H. D. |last1=Ohr |first2=M. D. |last2=Coffer |first3=R. T. |last3=McMillan |title=Diseases of Avocado (Persea americana Miller) |date=8 April 2003 |publisher=The American Phytopathological Society |access-date=20 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180621015622/https://www.apsnet.org/publications/commonnames/Pages/Avocado.aspx |archive-date=21 June 2018 }}</ref> The [[Protopulvinaria pyriformis|pyriform scale insect]] (''Protopulvinaria pyriformis'') is known from Australia, South Africa, Israel, Italy, France, Spain, Cuba, Florida,<ref name=CABI>{{cite web |url=https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/44552 |title=''Protopulvinaria pyriformis'' (pyriform scale) |date=2021 |publisher=CABI |doi=10.1079/cabicompendium.44552 |access-date=26 February 2020}}</ref> and Peru. It is normally found on avocado, and in Peru it is said to be the worst insect pest of the fruit. Certain cultivars of avocado seem more susceptible to attack by the scale than others.<ref name=Sharp>{{cite book|author1=Peña, Jorge E. |author2=Sharp, Jennifer L. |author3=Wysoki, M.|title=Tropical Fruit Pests and Pollinators: Biology, Economic Importance, Natural Enemies, and Control |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t_BSs0hrAPAC&pg=PA232 |year=2002 |publisher=CABI |isbn=978-0-85199-976-0 |page=232}}</ref>

===Cultivation by location===
====Cultivation in Mexico====
{{main|Avocado production in Mexico}}
Mexico is by far the world's largest avocado growing country, producing several times more than the second largest producer.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.novagrim.com/Pages/2000_2011_avocado_statistics_EN.aspx |title=2001–2013 World avocado production, 2000–2011 World Avocado Exports, 2002–2013 French avocado imports |publisher=Novagrim.com |access-date=1 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140223071153/http://www.novagrim.com/Pages/2000_2011_avocado_statistics_EN.aspx |archive-date=23 February 2014 }}</ref> In 2013, the total area dedicated to avocado production was {{convert|188,723|ha|acre|abbr=off}}, and the harvest was 2.03&nbsp;million tonnes in 2017.<ref name=faostat/> The states that produce the most are [[State of Mexico|México]], [[Morelos]], [[Nayarit]], [[Puebla]], and Michoacan, accounting for 86% of the total. In Michoacán, the cultivation is complicated by the existence of [[drug cartel]]s that extort protection fees from cultivators. They are reported to exact 2,000 Mexican [[peso]]s per hectare from avocado farmers and 1 to 3 pesos/kg of harvested fruit.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aristeguinoticias.com/3010/mexico/templarios-ganan-2000-mdp-al-ano-extorsionando-a-aguacateros-en-michoacan/ |title=Templarios ganan 2,000 mdp al año extorsionando a aguacateros en Michoacán |trans-title=Templars earn 2,000 pesos a year extorting avocado in Michoacan |language=es |publisher=Aristegui Noticias |date=29 October 2013 |access-date=1 February 2014}}</ref> It is such a problem that the phrase ''blood guacamole'' has been adopted to describe the social effects in Mexico of the vast worldwide demand for its fruits.<ref name=nymag/>

====Cultivation in California====
Avocados were introduced to California from [[Nicaragua]] in the early 1850s, when avocado trees imported from the [[Central American]] country were observed and reported growing near San Gabriel.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://avocado.ucr.edu/early-history-avocado-california|title= Early History of the Avocado in California}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/pdf/10.5555/20083015144|title= The Avocado|journal= CABI Databases}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.californiaavocadogrowers.com/sites/default/files/documents/13-World-Avocado-Production-Prospects-California-In-Transition-Fall-2020.pdf|title= World avocado production prospects in California}}</ref> The avocado has since become a successful [[cash crop]]. About {{convert|59000|acre|ha|order=flip|abbr=off}} – as of 2015, some 80% of United States avocado production – is located in [[Southern California]].<ref name="nymag">Sternbergh, Adam, "Avocados Are Toast", [[New York (magazine)|New York magazine]], April 20 – May 3, 2015</ref> 

Avocado is the official fruit of the state of California.<ref>{{Cite web|title=California State Foods Named By Gavin Newsom|publisher=Huffington Post, San Francisco|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/04/24/california-state-foods_n_3150928.html|date = 25 April 2013|access-date = 15 April 2015}}</ref> [[Fallbrook, California]], claims, without official recognition, the title of "Avocado Capital of the World" (also claimed by the town of [[Uruapan]] in Mexico<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.uruapaninteractivo.com/uruapan.htm |title=::Uruapan:: Uruapan, Michoacan, México |publisher=Uruapaninteractivo.com |access-date=1 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203004605/http://www.uruapaninteractivo.com/uruapan.htm |archive-date=3 February 2014 }}</ref>), and both it and [[Carpinteria, California]], host annual avocado festivals.

The [[California Avocado Commission]] and the [[California Avocado Society]] are the two major grower organizations and [[Calavo Growers]] is a major distributor.

====Cultivation in Peru====
'Hass' avocado production in Peru encompasses thousands of hectares in central and western Peru.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.freshplaza.com/article/129650/Peru-Record-avocado-production-saturated-the-markets-in-2014|title=Peru: Record avocado production saturated the markets in 2014|work=freshplaza.com|date=23 October 2014 }}</ref> Peru has now become the largest supplier of avocados imported to the [[European Union]] and the second largest supplier to Asia and the United States.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.producebluebook.com/2019/01/10/peru-jumps-to-no-2-avocado-exporter-to-the-u-s/|title=Peru jumps to No.2 avocado exporter to the U.S.|date=10 January 2019|website=Produce Blue Book|language=en-US|access-date=3 February 2019}}</ref> The country's location near the [[equator]] and along the Pacific Ocean creates consistently mild temperatures all year.

'Hass' avocados from Peru are seasonally available to consumers from May through September and are promoted under the auspices of the Peruvian Avocado Commission, headquartered in Washington, D.C.

====Cultivation in Chile====
{{see also|Petorca water crisis|Laguna de Aculeo}}
Chile has produced avocados for over 100 years with production increasing dramatically in the early 1980s due to global demand. [[New York (magazine)|''New York'' magazine]] reported in 2015 that "Large avocado growers are draining the country's [[groundwater]] and rivers faster than they can replenish themselves."<ref name=nymag/> 88% of total production and 99% of exported avocados from Chile are Hass avocados. Avocados are a staple fruit in Chile with 30% of production destined for the domestic market. No import tariffs are imposed on Chilean avocados by China, the United States, or the European Union due to free trade agreements.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Gonzalez |first1=Sergio |title=Avocado Annual 2018 |url=https://apps.fas.usda.gov/newgainapi/api/report/downloadreportbyfilename?filename=Avocado%20Annual_Santiago_Chile_11-15-2018.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Avocados|url=https://fruitsfromchile.com/fruit/avocados/#:~:text=Chile%20has%20been%20growing%20commercial%20varieties%20of%20avocados,most%20production%20has%20shifted%20to%20the%20Hass%20variety. |website=Fruits From Chile}}</ref>

===Cultivars===
{{globalize|date=May 2022}}

====A cultivars====

* [[Choquette avocado|'Choquette']]: [[File:Avocado cv Choquette.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Avocado 'Choquette' grafted]] A seedling from Miami, Florida. 'Choquette' bore large fruit of good eating quality in large quantities and had good disease resistance, and thus became a major cultivar. Today 'Choquette' is widely propagated in south Florida both for commercial growing and for home growing.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Crane|first1=Jonathan H.|last2=Balerdi|first2=Carlos F.|last3=Maguire|first3=Ian|date=2018|title=Avocado Growing in the Florida Home Landscape|url=https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/mg213|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125190514/https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/mg213|archive-date=2020-11-25|access-date=2021-01-10|website=edis.ifas.ufl.edu|language=English}}</ref>
* 'Gwen': A seedling bred from 'Hass' x 'Thille' in 1982, 'Gwen' is higher yielding and more dwarfing than 'Hass' in California. The fruit has an oval shape, slightly smaller than 'Hass' ({{convert|100|-|200|g|oz|frac=2|abbr=on|disp=or}}), with a rich, nutty flavor. The skin texture is more finely pebbled than 'Hass', and is dull green when ripe. It is frost-hardy down to {{convert|-1|°C|°F|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Sidnam|first=Bill|date=1992-04-26|title=Gwen Avocado Produces More in Less Space|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1992-04-26-re-1139-story.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110224857/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1992-04-26-re-1139-story.html|archive-date=2021-01-10|access-date=2021-01-10|website=Los Angeles Times|language=en-US}}</ref>
* [[Hass avocado|'Hass']]: [[File:Hass avocado -white background.jpg|thumb|right|Two 'Hass' avocados]] The 'Hass' is the most common cultivar of avocado. It produces fruit year-round and accounts for 80% of cultivated avocados in the world.<ref name="WCA" /><ref name="Avocado.org 1">{{cite web|url=http://www.avocado.org/about/avocado-history/mother-tree|author=<!--Staff writer; no by-line.-->|title=The Hass Mother Tree: 1926–2002|work=Avocado.org|pages='About Avocados: History' section|publisher=[[California Avocado Commission]]|location=[[Irvine, CA]]|date=2008|access-date=27 September 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080913165316/http://www.avocado.org/about/avocado-history/mother-tree|archive-date=13 September 2008}}</ref> All 'Hass' trees are descended from a single "mother tree" raised by a mail carrier named [[Rudolph Hass]], of [[La Habra Heights, California]].<ref name="IF" /><ref name="Avocado.org 1" /> Hass patented the productive tree in 1935. The "mother tree", of uncertain subspecies, died of [[root rot]] and was cut down in September 2002.<ref name="WCA" /><ref name="Avocado.org 1" /><ref name=lat-2003sep07>[https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2003-sep-07-me-avocado7-story.html "Avocado Tree's Demise Is the Pits for Growers; Fitting farewell sought for 'mother'"]. [[Los Angeles Times]], 7 September 2003.</ref> 
* [[Lula (avocado)|'Lula']]: A seedling reportedly grown from a 'Taft' avocado planted in Miami on the property of George Cellon, it is named after Cellon's wife, Lula. It was likely a cross between Guatemalan and Mexican types. 'Lula' was recognized for its flavor and high oil content and propagated commercially in Florida.
* [[Maluma (avocado)|'Maluma']]: A relatively new cultivar, it was discovered in South Africa in the early 1990s by Mr. A.G. (Dries) Joubert. It is a chance seedling of unknown parentage.
* 'Pinkerton': First grown on the Pinkerton Ranch in [[Saticoy, California]], in the early 1970s, 'Pinkerton' is a seedling of 'Hass' x 'Rincon'. The large fruit has a small seed, and its green skin deepens in color as it ripens. The thick flesh has a smooth, creamy texture, pale green color, good flavor, and high oil content. It shows some cold tolerance, to {{convert|-1|°C|°F|abbr=on}} and bears consistently heavy crops. A hybrid Guatemalan type, it has excellent peeling characteristics.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}}
* 'Reed': Developed from a chance seedling found in 1948 by James S. Reed in California, this cultivar has large, round, green fruit with a smooth texture and dark, thick, glossy skin. Smooth and delicate, the flesh has a slightly nutty flavor. The skin ripens green. A Guatemalan type, it is hardy to {{convert|-1|°C|°F|abbr=on}}. Tree size is about {{convert|5|by|4|m|ft|frac=2|abbr=on}}.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}}

====B cultivars====

* [[Fuerte avocado|'Fuerte']]: Commercialized in the U.S. from budwood imported from [[Atlixco]], Mexico in 1911,<ref name="CAS25-26">{{cite web |last1=Popenoe |first1=Wilson |title=California Avocado Society 1925-26 Yearbook: The Parent Fuerte Tree at Atlixco, Mexico |url=https://www.avocadosource.com/cas_yearbooks/cas_11_1925-26/cas_1925-26_pg_24-34.pdf |access-date=1 March 2023}}</ref> Fuerte was the dominant commercial variety in the U.S. for the first half of the 20th century.<ref name="cooksInfo">{{cite web |title=Fuerte Avocado |url=https://www.cooksinfo.com/fuerte-avocado |website=Cook's Info |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref>
* 'Sharwil': Developed by James Cockburn Wilson (died 1990) with Frank Victor Sharpe in [[Tamborine Mountain]], Queensland, Australia, in the 1950s, a [[portmanteau]] of Sharpe and Wilson.<ref>{{cite web |title=Talking avocados |url=https://avocado.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/TalkingAvocadosWinter1990Vol1No2scanned_001.pdf |website=Avocados Australia |publisher=Australian Avocado Growers' Federation |access-date=16 January 2022 |date=June 1990}}</ref> Wilson also developed the Willard variety (Wilson and Hazzard), imported the Reed variety into Australia, and developed the Shepard variety. Sharpe {{post-nominals|OBE}} was later awarded a [[Order of St Michael and St George|CMG]] in [[1972 Birthday Honours#Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George (CMG) 2|1972]] for services to the avocado industry. The variety originated in Guatemala.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article214554727 |title=Research plants stolen |newspaper=Hamersley News |volume=X |issue=17 |location=Western Australia |date=8 September 1977 |access-date=16 January 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref>

====Other cultivars====
Other avocado cultivars include [[William A. Spinks#Spinks avocado|'Spinks']]. Historically attested varieties (which may or may not survive among [[horticulture|horticulturists]]) include the 'Challenge', 'Dickinson', 'Kist', 'Queen', 'Rey', 'Royal', 'Sharpless', and 'Taft'.<ref name="CAA 1924-25">{{cite journal|url=http://www.avocadosource.com/CAS_Yearbooks/CAS_10_1924-25/CAS_1924-25_PG_32-40.pdf |title=Cold Storage Behavior of Avocados |first=E. L. |last=Overholser |journal=California Avocado Association Annual Report |publisher=California Avocado Association |location=San Diego, California |date=1924–1925 |volume=10 |pages=32–40 |access-date=19 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130730110709/http://www.avocadosource.com/CAS_Yearbooks/CAS_10_1924-25/CAS_1924-25_PG_32-40.pdf |archive-date=30 July 2013 }}</ref>

====Stoneless avocado====
A stoneless avocado, marketed as a "cocktail avocado", which does not contain a pit, is available on a limited basis. They are five to eight centimetres long; the whole fruit may be eaten, including the skin. It is produced from an unpollinated blossom in which the seed does not develop.<ref>[https://www.independent.ie/life/food-drink/the-holy-grail-of-avocados-stoneless-hits-shops-for-a-limited-time-only-36387772.html The holy grail of avocados – stoneless – hits shops for a limited time only] [[Sunday Independent (Ireland)|The Sunday Independent]], 10 December 2017.</ref> Seedless avocados regularly appear on trees.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.soilzone.com/Library/Crops/Avocado/Phenology/Avocado%20fruit%20growth.pdf|title=Development of Seeded and Seedless Avocado Fruit|work=Agricultural Research Organization, Volcani Center, Bet-Dagan, Israel|author1=Blumenfeld, Amos|author2=Gazit, Shmuel|access-date=21 September 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140125180713/http://soilzone.com/Library/Crops/Avocado/Phenology/Avocado%20fruit%20growth.pdf|archive-date=25 January 2014}}</ref> Known in the avocado industry as "cukes", they are usually discarded commercially due to their small size.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.avocadosource.com/CAS_Yearbooks/CAS_33_1948/CAS_1948_PG_113-116.pdf|journal=California Avocado Society 1948 Yearbook|author1=Stewart, W.S. |author2=Smoyer, K.M. |author3=Puffer, R.E. |title=Progress Report on Effects of Plant Growth Regulator Sprays on Avocados|access-date=21 September 2010|volume=33|pages=113–116}}</ref>

=== Production ===
{{main|List of countries by avocado production}}
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right;clear:right; width:12em; text-align:center;"
|+ Avocado production <br> <small> 2023, millions of tonnes</small>
|-
| {{MEX}} || 2.97
|-
| {{COL}} || 1.09
|-
| {{DOM}} || 1.02
|-
| {{PER}} || 0.98
|-
| {{IDN}} || 0.87
|-
| {{KEN}} || 0.54
|-
| '''World''' || '''10.47'''
|-
|colspan=2|{{small|Source: [[FAOSTAT]] of the United Nations}}<ref name=faostat>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC |title= Crops/World regions/Production quantity (pick lists) of avocados for 2023|date=2025|publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations]], Statistical Division (FAOSTAT)|access-date=27 February 2025}}</ref>
|}

In 2023, world production of avocados was 10.5&nbsp;million tonnes, led by Mexico with 29% (3&nbsp;million tonnes) of the total (table). Other major producers were [[Colombia]], [[Dominican Republic]], [[Peru]], and [[Indonesia]].<ref name=faostat/>

===International market===
A 2024 market analysis indicated that avocado exports will increase over the next five years with as many as 30 countries producing avocados, possibly becoming the world's most traded fruit by 2030.<ref name="ajot24">{{cite web |last1=Meadows |first1=Andrew |title=Avocados will continue strong surge in 2025 and beyond |url=https://www.ajot.com/insights/full/ai-avocados-will-continue-strong-surge-in-2025-and-beyond |publisher=American Journal of Transportation |access-date=27 February 2025 |date=31 December 2024}}</ref>