Editing Attention (section)

===Exogenous and endogenous orienting===
Orienting attention is vital and can be controlled through external (exogenous) or internal (endogenous) processes.  However, comparing these two processes is challenging because external signals do not operate completely exogenously, but will only summon attention and eye movements if they are important to the subject.<ref name="Posner, M. I. 1980"/>

''Exogenous'' (from [[Greek language|Greek]] ''exo'', meaning "outside", and ''genein'', meaning "to produce") orienting is frequently described as being under control of a stimulus.<ref name="Mayer, A. R. 2004">{{cite journal | vauthors = Mayer AR, Dorflinger JM, Rao SM, Seidenberg M | title = Neural networks underlying endogenous and exogenous visual-spatial orienting | journal = NeuroImage | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 534–41 | date = October 2004 | pmid = 15488402 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.06.027 | s2cid = 42196703 }}</ref>  Exogenous orienting is considered to be reflexive and automatic and is caused by a sudden change in the periphery. This often results in a reflexive saccade. Since exogenous cues are typically presented in the periphery, they are referred to as ''peripheral cues''. Exogenous orienting can even be observed when individuals are aware that the cue will not relay reliable, accurate information about where a target is going to occur. This means that the mere presence of an exogenous cue will affect the response to other stimuli that are subsequently presented in the cue's previous location.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Friesen CK, Kingstone A |title=The eyes have it! Reflexive orienting is triggered by nonpredictive gaze|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=490–495 |year=1998 |url= http://www.psych.utoronto.ca/users/ferber/teaching/visualattention/readings/Oct6/1998_Friesen_Kingstone_PBR.pdf |doi=10.3758/BF03208827 |s2cid=672869|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Several studies have investigated the influence of valid and invalid cues.<ref name="Posner, M. I. 1980"/><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Cheal M, Lyon DR | title = Central and peripheral precuing of forced-choice discrimination | journal = The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. A, Human Experimental Psychology | volume = 43 | issue = 4 | pages = 859–80 | date = November 1991 | pmid = 1775667 | doi = 10.1080/14640749108400960 | s2cid = 13304439 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Jonides J | date = 1981 | chapter = Voluntary versus automatic control over the mind's eye movement | veditors = Long JB, Braddely AD | title = Attention and performance IX | pages = 187–203 | location = London | publisher = Erlbaum }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tsal Y | title = Movements of attention across the visual field | journal = Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance | volume = 9 | issue = 4 | pages = 523–30 | date = August 1983 | pmid = 6224890 | doi = 10.1037/0096-1523.9.4.523 }}</ref> They concluded that valid peripheral cues benefit performance, for instance when the peripheral cues are brief flashes at the relevant location before the onset of a visual stimulus. Psychologists Michael Posner and Yoav Cohen (1984) noted a reversal of this benefit takes place when the interval between the onset of the cue and the onset of the target is longer than about 300 ms.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Posner MI, Cohen YP | date = 1984 | chapter = Components of visual orienting | veditors = Bouma H, Bouwhuis D | title = Attention and performance X | pages = 531–566 | location = London | publisher = Erlbaum }}</ref> The phenomenon  of valid cues producing longer reaction times than invalid cues is called [[inhibition of return]].

''Endogenous'' (from [[Greek language|Greek]] ''endo'', meaning "within" or "internally") orienting is the intentional allocation of attentional resources to a predetermined location or space.<!-- <ref name="Mayer, A.R. 2004" /> ???--> Simply stated, endogenous orienting occurs when attention is oriented according to an observer's goals or desires, allowing the focus of attention to be manipulated by the demands of a task. In order to have an effect, endogenous cues must be processed by the observer and acted upon purposefully. These cues are frequently referred to as ''central cues''. This is because they are typically presented at the center of a display, where an observer's eyes are likely to be fixated. Central cues, such as an arrow or digit presented at fixation, tell observers to attend to a specific location.<ref>{{Cite journal | vauthors = Hodgson TL, Muller HJ | doi = 10.1080/027249899390990 | title = Attentional Orienting in Two-dimensional Space | journal = The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology A | volume = 52 | issue = 3 | pages = 615–648 | year = 1999 }}</ref>

When examining differences between exogenous and endogenous orienting, some researchers suggest that there are four differences between the two kinds of cues: 
* exogenous orienting is less affected by [[cognitive load]] than endogenous orienting; 
* observers are able to ignore endogenous cues but not exogenous cues;
* exogenous cues have bigger effects than endogenous cues; and
* expectancies about cue validity and predictive value affects endogenous orienting more than exogenous orienting.<ref>Jonides, J. (1981). Voluntary vs. automatic control over the mind's eye's movement. In J.B. Long & A.D. Baddeley (Eds.), Attention and performance IX (pp. 187–203). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.</ref>

There exist both overlaps and differences in the areas of the brain that are responsible for endogenous and exogenous orientating.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rosen AC, Rao SM, Caffarra P, Scaglioni A, Bobholz JA, Woodley SJ, Hammeke TA, Cunningham JM, Prieto TE, Binder JR | display-authors = 6 | title = Neural basis of endogenous and exogenous spatial orienting. A functional MRI study | journal = Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience | volume = 11 | issue = 2 | pages = 135–52 | date = March 1999 | pmid = 10198130 | doi = 10.1162/089892999563283 | s2cid = 13573473 }}</ref> Another approach to this discussion has been covered under the topic heading of "bottom-up" versus "top-down" orientations to attention. Researchers of this school have described two different aspects of how the mind focuses attention to items present in the environment. The first aspect is called bottom-up processing, also known as stimulus-driven attention or [[exogeny|exogenous]] attention. These describe attentional processing which is driven by the properties of the objects themselves. Some processes, such as motion or a sudden loud noise, can attract our attention in a pre-conscious, or non-volitional way. We attend to them whether we want to or not.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Theeuwes J | title = Exogenous and endogenous control of attention: the effect of visual onsets and offsets | journal = Perception & Psychophysics | volume = 49 | issue = 1 | pages = 83–90 | date = January 1991 | pmid = 2011456 | doi = 10.3758/bf03211619 | doi-access = free }}</ref> These aspects of attention are thought to involve [[parietal lobe|parietal]] and [[temporal lobe|temporal]] cortices, as well as the [[brainstem]].<ref name="Posner">{{cite journal | vauthors = Posner MI, Petersen SE | title = The attention system of the human brain | journal = Annual Review of Neuroscience | volume = 13 | issue = 1 | pages = 25–42 | year = 1990 | pmid = 2183676 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.ne.13.030190.000325 | s2cid = 2995749 | url = http://cns-web.bu.edu/Profiles/Mingolla.html/cnsftp/cn730-2007-pdf/posner_petersen90.pdf | access-date = 2015-01-10 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150420124015/http://cns-web.bu.edu/Profiles/Mingolla.html/cnsftp/cn730-2007-pdf/posner_petersen90.pdf | archive-date = 2015-04-20 }}</ref> More recent experimental evidence<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Yan Y, Zhaoping L, Li W | title = Bottom-up saliency and top-down learning in the primary visual cortex of monkeys | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 115 | issue = 41 | pages = 10499–10504 | date = October 2018 | pmid = 30254154 | pmc = 6187116 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1803854115 | bibcode = 2018PNAS..11510499Y | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zhaoping L | title = Attention capture by eye of origin singletons even without awareness--a hallmark of a bottom-up saliency map in the primary visual cortex | journal = Journal of Vision | volume = 8 | issue = 5 | pages = 1.1–18 | date = May 2008 | pmid = 18842072 | doi = 10.1167/8.5.1 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zhang X, Zhaoping L, Zhou T, Fang F | title = Neural activities in v1 create a bottom-up saliency map | journal = Neuron | volume = 73 | issue = 1 | pages = 183–92 | date = January 2012 | pmid = 22243756 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuron.2011.10.035 | doi-access = free }}</ref> support the idea that the [http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Area_V1 primary visual cortex] creates a bottom-up saliency map,<ref name=":1">{{cite journal | vauthors = Li Z | title = A saliency map in primary visual cortex | journal = Trends in Cognitive Sciences | volume = 6 | issue = 1 | pages = 9–16 | date = January 2002 | pmid = 11849610 | doi = 10.1016/s1364-6613(00)01817-9 | s2cid = 13411369 }}</ref><ref name=":0" /> which is received by  the [[superior colliculus]] in the [[midbrain]] area to  guide attention or gaze shifts.

The second aspect is called top-down processing, also known as goal-driven, [[endogeny|endogenous]] attention, [[Attentional Control|attentional control]] or [[executive functions|executive]] attention. This aspect of our attentional orienting is under the control of the person who is attending. It is mediated primarily by the [[frontal lobe|frontal]] cortex and [[basal ganglia]]<ref name="Posner" /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Posner MI, Rothbart MK | title = Attention, self-regulation and consciousness | journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences| volume = 353 | issue = 1377 | pages = 1915–27 | date = November 1998 | pmid = 9854264 | pmc = 1692414 | doi = 10.1098/rstb.1998.0344 }}</ref> as one of the [[executive functions]].<ref name="Posner, M. I. 1980"/><ref name="Posner" /> Research has shown that it is related to other aspects of the executive functions, such as [[working memory]],<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Astle DE, Scerif G | title = Using developmental cognitive neuroscience to study behavioral and attentional control | journal = Developmental Psychobiology | volume = 51 | issue = 2 | pages = 107–18 | date = March 2009 | pmid = 18973175 | doi = 10.1002/dev.20350 }}</ref> and conflict resolution and inhibition.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rueda MR, Rothbart MK, McCandliss BD, Saccomanno L, Posner MI | title = Training, maturation, and genetic influences on the development of executive attention | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 102 | issue = 41 | pages = 14931–6 | date = October 2005 | pmid = 16192352 | pmc = 1253585 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0506897102 | bibcode = 2005PNAS..10214931R | doi-access = free }}</ref>