Editing Artillery (section)

===Expansion of use===
{{main|Gunpowder artillery in the Middle Ages}}
[[File:French gunner 15th century · HHWXI264.svg|thumb|left|upright|French gunner in the 15th century, a 1904 illustration]]
[[File:1526-First Battle of Panipat-Ibrahim Lodhi and Babur.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|[[First Battle of Panipat]]<ref>{{cite web|last=unknown |url=http://warfare.uphero.com/Moghul/Baburnama/1526-First_Battle_of_Panipat-Ibrahim_Lodhi_and_Babur.htm |title=1526, First Battle of Panipat, Ibrahim Lodhi and Babur |date=1590s |work=Baburnama}}</ref>]]
[[File:Bullocks dragging siege-guns up hill during the attack on Ranthambhor Fort.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|Bullocks dragging siege-guns up hill during Akbar's [[Siege of Ranthambore (1568)|Siege of Ranthambore]]<ref>{{cite web| url=http://warfare2.likamva.in/Moghul/Akbar/1568-Bullocks_dragging_siege-guns_up_hill_during_the_attack_on_Ranthambhor_Fort.htm|title=Bullocks dragging siege-guns up hill during Akbar's attack on Ranthambhor Fort|date=1590–95|work= The Akbarnama |access-date= May 19, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140519132308/http://warfare2.likamva.in/Moghul/Akbar/1568-Bullocks_dragging_siege-guns_up_hill_during_the_attack_on_Ranthambhor_Fort.htm |archive-date= May 19, 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>]]

In 1415, the Portuguese invaded the Mediterranean port town of [[Ceuta]]. While it is difficult to confirm the use of firearms in the siege of the city, it is known the Portuguese defended it thereafter with firearms, namely ''bombardas'', ''colebratas'', and ''falconetes''. In 1419, Sultan Abu Sa'id led an army to reconquer the fallen city, and Marinids brought cannons and used them in the assault on Ceuta. Finally, hand-held firearms and riflemen appear in Morocco, in 1437, in an expedition against the people of [[Tangiers]].<ref>Cook, Weston F., Jr. 1993 ''Warfare and Firearms in Fifteenth century Morocco, 1400–1492.''</ref>{{Page needed|date=April 2011}} It is clear these weapons had developed into several different forms, from small guns to large artillery pieces.

The artillery revolution in Europe caught on during the [[Hundred Years' War]] and changed the way that battles were fought. In the preceding decades, the English had even used a gunpowder-like weapon in military campaigns against the Scottish.<ref>([[Sieges of Stirling Castle]])</ref> However, at this time, the cannons used in battle were very small and not particularly powerful. Cannons were only useful for the defense of a [[castle]], as demonstrated at [[Siege of Breteuil|Breteuil]] in 1356, when the besieged English used a cannon to destroy an attacking French assault tower.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lee|first1=T.W.|title=Military Technologies of the World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-nrZqzQs3jMC&q=Battle%20of%20Breteuil%20cannon&pg=PA242|access-date=17 November 2017|isbn=978-0-275-99536-2|date=2008-12-30|publisher=Abc-Clio }}</ref> By the end of the 14th century, cannons were only powerful enough to knock in roofs, and could not penetrate castle walls.

However, a major change occurred between 1420 and 1430, when artillery became much more powerful and could now batter strongholds and fortresses quite efficiently. The English, French, and Burgundians all advanced in military technology, and as a result the traditional advantage that went to the defense in a siege was lost. Cannons during this period were elongated, and the recipe for gunpowder was improved to make it three times as powerful as before.<ref>{{cite journal
  |title = The Military Revolutions of the Hundred Years' War
  |last = Rogers
  |first = Clifford J.
  |journal = [[The Journal of Military History]]
  |issn = 1543-7795
  |volume = 57
  |issue = 2
  |year = 1993
  |pages = 241–78
  |doi = 10.2307/2944058
  |jstor = 2944058
}}</ref> These changes led to the increased power in the artillery weapons of the time.

[[File:HGM Pumhart von Steyr.jpg|thumb|left|The Austrian [[Pumhart von Steyr]], the earliest extant [[large-calibre artillery|large-calibre gun]]<ref>{{harvnb|Schmidtchen|1977|p=162}}</ref>]]
[[Joan of Arc]] encountered gunpowder weaponry several times. When she led the French against the English at the Battle of Tourelles, in 1430, she faced heavy gunpowder fortifications, and yet her troops prevailed in that battle. In addition, she led assaults against the English-held towns of Jargeau, Meung, and Beaugency, all with the support of large artillery units. When she led the assault on Paris, Joan faced stiff artillery fire, especially from the suburb of St. Denis, which ultimately led to her defeat in this battle. In April 1430, she went to battle against the Burgundians, whose support was purchased by the English. At this time, the Burgundians had the strongest and largest gunpowder arsenal among the European powers, and yet the French, under Joan of Arc's leadership, were able to beat back the Burgundians and defend themselves.<ref>DeVries, K: The Use of Gunpowder Weaponry By and Against Joan or Arc During the Hundred Years' War. 1996</ref> As a result, most of the battles of the Hundred Years' War that Joan of Arc participated in were fought with gunpowder artillery.
[[File:Dardanelles Gun Turkish Bronze 15c.png|thumb|[[Dardanelles Gun]]. Very heavy 15th-C bronze muzzle-loading cannon of type used by [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] in [[siege of Constantinople (1453)]], showing ornate decoration. Taken by The Land Feb 07 at [[Fort Nelson, Hampshire]].]]

The army of [[Mehmet the Conqueror]], which conquered [[Constantinople]] in 1453, included both artillery and foot soldiers armed with gunpowder weapons.<ref name=Nicolle2>{{cite book|last=Nicolle|first=David|author-link=David Nicolle|title=Constantinople 1453: The end of Byzantium|url=https://archive.org/details/constantinopleen00nico_981|url-access=limited|publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]]|year=2000|pages=[https://archive.org/details/constantinopleen00nico_981/page/n66 29]–30|isbn=978-1-84176-091-9|location=London}}</ref> The [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] brought to the siege sixty-nine guns in fifteen separate [[Artillery battery|batteries]] and trained them at the walls of the city. The barrage of Ottoman cannon fire lasted forty days, and they are estimated to have fired 19,320 times.<ref name=Nicolle3>{{cite book|last=Nicolle|first=David|title=Armies of the Ottoman Turks 1300–1774|publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]]|year=1983|pages=29–30|isbn=978-0-85045-511-3}}</ref> Artillery also played a decisive role in the [[Battle of St. Jakob an der Birs]] of 1444.  Early cannon were not always reliable; King [[James II of Scotland]] was killed by the accidental explosion of one of his own cannon, imported from Flanders, at the siege of Roxburgh Castle in 1460. 

The able use of artillery supported to a large measure the expansion and defense of the [[Portuguese Empire]], as it was a necessary tool that allowed the Portuguese to face overwhelming odds both on land and sea from [[Morocco]] to Asia.<ref name="peers"/> In great sieges and in sea battles, the Portuguese demonstrated a level of proficiency in the use of artillery after the beginning of the 16th century unequalled by contemporary European neighbours, in part due to the experience gained in intense fighting in Morocco, which served as a proving ground for artillery and its practical application, and made Portugal a forerunner in gunnery for decades.<ref name="peers"/> During the reign of [[Manuel I of Portugal|King Manuel]] (1495–1521) at least 2017 cannon were sent to Morocco for garrison defense, with more than 3000 cannon estimated to have been required during that 26-year period.<ref name="peers">Douglas M. Peers: ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=fKpYEAAAQBAJ&dq=Warfare%20and%20Empires%3A%20Contact%20and%20Conflict%20Between%20European%20and%20Non-European%20Military%20and%20Maritime%20Forces%20and%20Cultures%20morocco&pg=PP64 Warfare and Empires: Contact and Conflict Between European and Non-European Military and Maritime Forces and Cultures]'', Routledge, 2022</ref> An especially noticeable division between siege guns and anti-personnel guns enhanced the use and effectiveness of Portuguese firearms above contemporary powers, making cannon the most essential element in the Portuguese arsenal.<ref name="peers"/>
[[File:Museu Militar - Lisboa - Portugal (49431498938).jpg|thumb|Portuguese artillery on display at the Military Museum of Lisbon, Portugal.]]

The three major classes of Portuguese artillery were anti-personnel guns with a high borelength (including: ''rebrodequim'', ''berço'', ''falconete'', ''falcão'', ''sacre'', ''áspide'', ''cão'', ''serpentina'' and ''passavolante''); bastion guns which could batter fortifications (''camelete'', ''leão'', ''pelicano'', ''basilisco'', ''águia'', ''camelo'', ''roqueira'', ''urso''); and howitzers that fired large stone cannonballs in an elevated arch, weighted up to 4000 pounds and could fire incendiary devices, such as a hollow iron ball filled with pitch and fuse, designed to be fired at close range and burst on contact.<ref name="peers1">Douglas M. Peers: ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=fKpYEAAAQBAJ&dq=Warfare%20and%20Empires%3A%20Contact%20and%20Conflict%20Between%20European%20and%20Non-European%20Military%20and%20Maritime%20Forces%20and%20Cultures%20morocco&pg=PP68 Warfare and Empires: Contact and Conflict Between European and Non-European Military and Maritime Forces and Cultures]'', Routledge, 2022</ref> The most popular in Portuguese arsenals was the ''berço'', a 5&nbsp;cm, one pounder bronze breech-loading cannon that weighted 150&nbsp;kg with an effective range of 600 meters.<ref name="peers1"/>

A tactical innovation the Portuguese introduced in fort defense was the use of combinations of projectiles against massed assaults.<ref name="peers2"/> Although canister shot had been developed in the early 15th century, the Portuguese were the first to employ it extensively, and Portuguese engineers invented a canister round which consisted of a thin lead case filled with iron pellets, that broke up at the muzzle and scattered its contents in a narrow pattern.<ref name="peers2"/> An innovation which Portugal adopted in advance of other European powers was fuse-delayed action shells, and were commonly used in 1505.<ref name="peers2"/> Although dangerous, their effectiveness meant a sixth of all rounds used by the Portuguese in Morocco were of the fused-shell variety.<ref name="peers2">Douglas M. Peers: ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=fKpYEAAAQBAJ&dq=Warfare%20and%20Empires%3A%20Contact%20and%20Conflict%20Between%20European%20and%20Non-European%20Military%20and%20Maritime%20Forces%20and%20Cultures%20morocco&pg=PP69 Warfare and Empires: Contact and Conflict Between European and Non-European Military and Maritime Forces and Cultures]'', Routledge, 2022</ref>

[[File:Chongtongs-Jinju Castle.jpg|right|thumb|Three of the large Korean artillery, [[Chongtong]] in the Jinju National Museum. These cannons were made in the mid 16th century. The closest is a "Cheonja chongtong"(천자총통, 天字銃筒), the second is a "Jija chongtong"(지자총통, 地字銃筒), and the third is a "Hyeonja chongtong"(현자총통, 玄字銃筒).]]
The new [[Ming Dynasty]] established the "Divine Engine Battalion" (神机营), which specialized in various types of artillery. Light cannons and cannons with multiple volleys were developed. In a campaign to suppress a local minority rebellion near today's Burmese border, "the Ming army used a 3-line method of arquebuses/muskets to destroy an elephant formation".<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ot6rDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA178 |title = Enotenplato, the Chronicle of Military Doctrine |date = August 23, 2019 |publisher = Lulu.com |isbn = 978-0-35980699-7}}</ref>

When the Portuguese and Spanish arrived at Southeast Asia, they found that the local kingdoms were already using cannons. Portuguese and Spanish invaders were unpleasantly surprised and even outgunned on occasion.<ref>{{cite book|title=Changes of regime and social dynamics in West Java : society, state, and the outer world of Banten, 1750–1830 |last1= Atsushi |first1= Ota|date=2006|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-15091-1|location= Leiden}}</ref> Duarte Barbosa ca. 1514 said that the inhabitants of Java were great masters in casting artillery and very good artillerymen. They made many one-pounder cannons (cetbang or [[Lantaka|rentaka]]), long muskets, ''spingarde'' (arquebus), ''schioppi'' (hand cannon), [[Greek fire]], guns (cannons), and other fire-works. In all aspects the Javanese were considered excellent in casting artillery, and in the knowledge of using it.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Jones|first=John Winter|url=https://archive.org/details/travelsofludovic00vartrich/page/254/mode/2up?q=|title=The travels of Ludovico di Varthema in Egypt, Syria, Arabia Deserta and Arabia Felix, in Persia, India, and Ethiopia, A.D. 1503 to 1508|publisher=Hakluyt Society|year=1863}}</ref>{{Rp|254}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Stanley|first=Henry Edward John|url=https://archive.org/details/descriptionofcoa00barbrich/page/n7/mode/2up|title=A Description of the Coasts of East Africa and Malabar in the Beginning of the Sixteenth Century by Duarte Barbosa |publisher= The Hakluyt Society|year=1866}}</ref>{{Rp|198}}<ref>{{Cite book |last= Partington |first= J. R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fNZBSqd2cToC&pg=PA224|title=A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder|date=1999|publisher=JHU Press|isbn=978-0-8018-5954-0|language=en}}</ref>{{Rp |224}} In 1513, the [[Djong (ship)#European age of discovery|Javanese fleet]] led by Pati Unus sailed to attack [[Portuguese Malacca]] "with much artillery made in Java, for the Javanese are skilled in founding and casting, and in all works in [[iron]], over and above what they have in [[India]]".<ref name=":022">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XNsk7tLkMU4C |title=Anthony Reid and the Study of the Southeast Asian Past |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |year=2012 |isbn=978-981-4311-96-0 |editor-last=Wade |editor-first=Geoff |location=Singapore |editor-last2=Tana |editor-first2=Li}}</ref>{{Rp |162}}<ref name=":222">{{Cite book |last=Crawfurd |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/adescriptivedic00crawgoog/page/n8/mode/2up?q= |title=A Descriptive Dictionary of the Indian Islands and Adjacent Countries |publisher=Bradbury and Evans |year=1856}}</ref>{{Rp|23}} By the early 16th century, the [[Javanese people|Javanese]] had already started locally-producing large guns, which were dubbed "sacred cannon[s]" or "holy cannon[s]" and have survived up to the present day - though in limited numbers. These cannons varied between 180 and 260 pounders, weighing anywhere between 3–8 tons, measuring between 3–6 m.<ref>''Modern Asian Studies''. Vol. 22, No. 3, Special Issue: Asian Studies in Honour of Professor Charles Boxer (1988), pp. 607–28.</ref>

Between 1593 and 1597, about 200,000 Korean and Chinese troops which [[Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598)|fought against Japan in Korea]] actively used heavy artillery in both siege and field combat. Korean forces mounted artillery [[Panokseon|in ships]] as [[naval gun]]s, providing an advantage against Japanese navy which used ''Kunikuzushi'' (国崩し – Japanese [[breech-loading swivel gun]]) and ''Ōzutsu'' (大筒 – large size [[Tanegashima (Japanese matchlock)|Tanegashima]]) as their largest firearms.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://sillok.history.go.kr/url.jsp?id=kna_13806007_002 |title= 조선왕조실록 |website= History | place = [[Korea|KR]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://sillok.history.go.kr/url.jsp?id=kna_12610022_001|title=조선왕조실록 |website= History | place = KR}}</ref>

In the 16th century Ottoman Empire, [[Humbaracı]]s were founded.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Uyar |first1=Mesut |last2=Erickson |first2=Edward |date=2009 |title=A Military History of the Ottomans}}</ref>