Editing Alhambra (section)

== Architecture ==
=== General design ===
[[File:Alhambra by Juan Laurent.jpg|thumb|Mullioned windows of the Hall of the Two Sisters in the Alhambra, by [[Jean Laurent (photographer)|Jean Laurent]], c. 1874. Stucco decoration can be seen on the upper walls while geometric tile mosaic is seen below.]]The design and decoration of the Nasrid palaces are a continuation of [[Moorish architecture|Moorish (western Islamic) architecture]] from earlier centuries but developed their own characteristics.{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|p=219}} The combination of carefully-proportioned courtyards, water features, gardens, arches on slender columns, and intricately-sculpted [[stucco]] and [[tile]] decoration gives Nasrid architecture qualities that are described as ethereal and intimate.{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=166}}<ref name=":0522">{{Cite book |last=Tabbaa |first=Yasser |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three |publisher=Brill |year=2007 |editor-last=Fleet |editor-first=Kate |location= |pages= |language=en |chapter=Architecture |issn=1873-9830 |editor2-last=Krämer |editor2-first=Gudrun |editor3-last=Matringe |editor3-first=Denis |editor4-last=Nawas |editor4-first=John |editor5-last=Rowson |editor5-first=Everett}}</ref><ref name=":242">{{Cite book |last= |first= |title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=9780195309911 |editor-last=Bloom |editor-first=Jonathan M. |location= |pages= |language=en |chapter=Architecture; VI. c. 1250–c. 1500; D. Western Islamic lands |editor2-last=Blair |editor2-first=Sheila S.}}</ref>{{Sfn|Irwin|2004|p=49}} Walls were built mostly in [[rammed earth]], [[Lime mortar|lime concrete]], or [[brick]] and then covered with [[plaster]], while wood (mostly [[pine]]) was used for roofs, ceilings, doors, and window shutters.{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=166}}{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=282–286}}

Buildings were designed to be seen from within, with their decoration focused on the inside.{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=166}} The basic unit of Nasrid palace architecture was a rectangular [[courtyard]] with a pool, fountain, or water channel at its centre.{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=164}} Courtyards were flanked on two or four sides by halls, often preceded by [[Arcade (architecture)|arcaded]] porticoes. Many of these structures featured a ''[[Mirador (architecture)|mirador]]'', a room projecting from the exterior commanding scenic views of gardens or of the city.<ref name=":24" />{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|p=219}} Buildings were designed with a mathematical proportional system that gives them a harmonious visual quality.{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=166}}{{Sfn|López|2011|p=260}} The layout of the courtyards, the distribution of windows, and the use of water features were designed with the climate in mind, cooling and ventilating the environment in summer while minimizing cold drafts and maximizing sunlight in winter.{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=166}}{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=267–268, 275}} Upper-floor rooms were smaller and more enclosed, making them more suited for use during the winter.{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=166}} Courtyards were usually aligned in a north–south direction which allows the main halls to receive direct sunlight at midday during the winter, while during the summer the higher midday sun is blocked by the position and depth of the porticos fronting these halls.{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=267}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wilmert |first=Todd |date=2010 |title=Alhambra Palace Architecture: An Environmental Consideration of Its Inhabitation |url=https://www.archnet.org/publications/9489 |journal=Muqarnas |volume=27 |pages=157–188|doi=10.1163/22118993_02701008 }}</ref>

=== Architects and poets ===
Little is known about the architects and craftsmen who built the Alhambra, but more is known about the ''Dīwān al-Ins͟hā''', or [[Chancery (medieval office)|chancery]].{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|p=237}} This institution seems to have played an increasingly important role in the design of buildings, probably because inscriptions came to feature so prominently in their decoration.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=259}}{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|pp=237–238}} The head of the chancery was often also the [[vizier]] (prime minister) of the sultan. Although not exactly architects, the terms of office of many individuals in these positions coincide with the major phases of construction in the Alhambra, which suggests that they played a role in leading construction projects.{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|pp=237-238}} The most important figures who held these positions, such as [[Ibn al-Jayyab]], [[Ibn al-Khatib]], and [[Ibn Zamrak]], also composed much of the poetry that adorns the walls of the Alhambra. Ibn al-Jayyab served as head of the chancery at various times between 1295 and 1349 under six sultans from Muhammad II to Yusuf I.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=259}}{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|pp=237-238}} Ibn al-Khatib served as both head of the chancery and as vizier for various periods between 1332 and 1371, under the sultans Yusuf I and Muhammad V.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=259}}{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|pp=237–238}} Ibn Zamrak served as vizier and head of the chancery for periods between 1354 and 1393, under Muhammad V and Muhammad VII.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=259}}{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|pp=237-238}}<ref name=":052">{{Cite book |last=Granja |first=F. de la |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition |publisher=Brill |year=2008 |isbn=9789004161214 |editor-last=Bearman |editor-first=P. |location= |pages= |chapter=Ibn Zamrak |editor2-last=Bianquis |editor2-first=Th. |editor3-last=Bosworth |editor3-first=C.E. |editor4-last=van Donzel |editor4-first=E. |editor5-last=Heinrichs |editor5-first=W.P.}}</ref>

=== Decoration ===
[[File:Ceiling Crafts of the Alhambra yeonu.jpg|thumb|Stucco-carved ''[[muqarnas]]'' (or ''mocárabes'') in the Palace of the Lions|left]]
[[Stucco decoration in Islamic architecture|Carved stucco]] (or ''yesería'' in Spanish) and mosaic tilework ([[Zellij|''zilīj'' or ''zellij'']] in Arabic;{{efn|The Arabic word ''zellij'' gave rise to the Spanish word ''[[azulejo]]s'', but the latter is now used to designate various ceramic artwork more generally.<ref name=":15" />}} ''alicatado'' in Spanish<ref name=":15">{{Cite book |last1=Degeorge |first1=Gérard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VynrAAAAMAAJ&q=zellij+alicatado |title=The Art of the Islamic Tile |last2=Porter |first2=Yves |publisher=Random House Incorporated |year=2002 |isbn=978-2-08-010876-0 |pages=24 |language=en}}</ref>) were used for wall decoration, while ceilings were generally made in wood, which could be carved and painted in turn. Tile mosaics and wooden ceilings often feature [[Islamic geometric patterns|geometric motifs]]. Tilework was generally used for lower walls or for floors, while stucco was used for upper zones.{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=166}} Stucco was typically carved with vegetal [[arabesque]] motifs (''ataurique'' in Spanish, from {{Langx|ar|التوريق |translit=al-tawrīq|lit=foliage|links=no}}), epigraphic motifs, geometric motifs, or ''[[sebka]]'' motifs.{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|pp=166–167}}<ref name=":8" />{{Sfn|Puertas|1997|p=96}} It could be further sculpted into three-dimensional ''muqarnas'' (''mocárabes'' in Spanish). Arabic inscriptions, a feature especially characteristic of the Alhambra, were carved along the walls and included [[Quran|Qur'anic]] excerpts, poetry by Nasrid court poets, and the repetition of the Nasrid motto "''[[Wala ghaliba illa Allah|wa la ghalib illa-llah]]''" ({{Langx|ar|ولا غالب إلا الله|lit=And there is no victor but God}}).{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|pp=166–167}}<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |last=Borges |first=Victor |date=2012-02-02 |title=Nasrid Plasterwork: Symbolism, Materials & Techniques |url=http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/journals/conservation-journal/issue-48/nasrid-plasterwork-symbolism,-materials-and-techniques/ |access-date=2022-02-20 |website=Victoria and Albert Museum Online Museum |archive-date=20 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220220210918/http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/journals/conservation-journal/issue-48/nasrid-plasterwork-symbolism,-materials-and-techniques/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[File:Palacios nazaríes. Sala del Mexuar - 005.JPG|thumb|Example of a typical Nasrid [[Capital (architecture)|capital]] (from the ''Sala del Mexuar''), with some of its original colours preserved]]
White marble quarried from [[Macael]] (in [[Province of Almería|Almeria province]]) was also used to make fountains and slender columns.{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=166}}{{Sfn|López|2011|p=286}} The [[Capital (architecture)|capitals]] of columns typically consisted of a lower cylindrical section sculpted with stylized [[Acanthus (plant)|acanthus]] leaves, an upper cubic section with vegetal or geometric motifs, and inscriptions (like the Nasrid motto) running along the base or the top edge.{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=166}}

While the stucco decoration, wooden ceilings, and marble capitals of the Alhambra often appear colourless or monochrome today, they were originally painted in bright colours.{{Sfn|Irwin|2004|pp=44, 49-50}}{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=166}} [[Primary color|Primary colours]] – red, blue, and (in place of yellow) gold – were the most prominent and were juxtaposed to achieve a certain aesthetic balance, while other colours were used in more nuanced ways in the background.{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=166}}<ref name=":13" />{{Sfn|Irwin|2004|p=156}}

==== Inscriptions ====
[[File:Granada-Alhambra12.jpg|thumb|Calligraphy in the Hall of Ambassadors: above is a band of inscriptions that repeats the Nasrid motto ("And There is no victor but God") in [[Naskh (script)|cursive script]], while below is a larger cartouche containing an inscription in "Knotted" [[Kufic]]]]
The Alhambra features various styles of the [[Islamic calligraphy|Arabic epigraphy]] that developed under the Nasrid dynasty, and particularly under Yusuf I and Muhammad V.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last1=Jayyusi |first1=Salma Khadra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cbfORLWv1HkC&pg=PA667 |title=The Legacy of Muslim Spain |last2=Marín |first2=Manuela |date=1992 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-09599-1 |access-date=26 June 2020 |archive-date=25 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200725025635/https://books.google.com/books?id=cbfORLWv1HkC&pg=PA667 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[José Miguel Puerta Vílchez]] compares the walls of the Alhambra to the pages of a manuscript, drawing similarities between the ''zilīj''-covered [[Dado (architecture)|dados]] and the geometric manuscript illuminations, and the epigraphical forms in the palace to calligraphic motifs in contemporary Arabic manuscripts.<ref name=":0" /> Inscriptions typically ran in vertical or horizontal bands or they were set inside cartouches of round or rectangular shape.{{Sfn|Irwin|2004|p=124}}

Most major inscriptions in the Alhambra use the [[Naskh (script)|''Naskhi'']] or cursive script, which was the most common script used in writing after the early Islamic period.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=269}} ''[[Thuluth]]'' was a derivation of the cursive script often used for more pompous or formal contexts; favoured, for example, in the preambles of documents prepared by the Nasrid chancery.{{Sfn|Irwin|2004|p=124}} Many inscriptions in the Alhambra were composed in a mixed ''Naskhi-Thuluth'' script.{{Sfn|Irwin|2004|p=124}}<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last=Bush |first=Olga |date=2009 |title=The Writing on the Wall: Reading the Decoration of the Alhambra |journal=Muqarnas |volume=26 |pages=119–148 |doi=10.1163/22118993-90000146|doi-access=free }}</ref> Bands of cursive script often alternated with friezes or cartouches of Kufic script. Kufic is the oldest form of Arabic calligraphy, but by the 13th century Kufic scripts in the western Islamic world became increasingly stylized in architectural contexts and could be nearly illegible.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=269}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Blair |first=Sheila S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=laQxEAAAQBAJ&dq=naskh+script+nasrid&pg=PA143 |title=Islamic Inscriptions |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2019 |isbn=978-1-4744-6448-2 |pages=91 |language=en |access-date=13 April 2022 |archive-date=2 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220502192158/https://books.google.com/books?id=laQxEAAAQBAJ&dq=naskh+script+nasrid&pg=PA143 |url-status=live }}</ref> In the Alhambra, there are many examples of "Knotted" Kufic, a particularly elaborate style where the letters tie together in intricate knots.<ref name=":13" /><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Jazayeri |first1=S. M. V. Mousavi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LCj5DQAAQBAJ&dq=knotted+kufic&pg=PA9 |title=A Handbook of Early Arabic Kufic Script: Reading, Writing, Calligraphy, Typography, Monograms |last2=Michelli |first2=Perette E. |last3=Abulhab |first3=Saad D. |publisher=Blautopf Publishing |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-9981727-4-3 |pages=9 |language=en |access-date=13 April 2022 |archive-date=2 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220502192154/https://books.google.com/books?id=LCj5DQAAQBAJ&dq=knotted+kufic&pg=PA9 |url-status=live }}</ref> The extensions of these letters could turn into strips that continued and formed more abstract motifs, or sometimes formed the edges of a cartouche encompassing the rest of the inscription.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=269}}

The texts of the Alhambra include "devout, regal, votive, and Qur'anic phrases and sentences," formed into arabesques, carved into wood and marble, and glazed onto tiles.<ref name=":0" /> Poets of the Nasrid court, including Ibn al-Khatīb and Ibn Zamrak, composed poems for the palace.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Travelers of Al-Andalus, Part VI: The Double Lives of Ibn al-Khatib - AramcoWorld |url=https://www.aramcoworld.com/Articles/November-2015/Travelers-of-Al-Andalus-Part-VI-The-Double-Lives |access-date=2020-06-07 |website=www.aramcoworld.com |archive-date=25 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200725025536/https://www.aramcoworld.com/Articles/November-2015/Travelers-of-Al-Andalus-Part-VI-The-Double-Lives |url-status=live }}</ref> The inscriptions of the Alhambra are also unique for their frequent self-referential nature and use of [[personification]]. Some inscribed poems, such as those in the Palace of the Lions, talk about the palace or room in which they're situated and are written in the first person, as if the room itself was speaking to the reader.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Robinson |first=Cynthia |date=2008 |title=Marginal Ornament: Poetics, Mimesis, And Devotion In The Palace Of The Lions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rRewCQAAQBAJ&dq=alhambra+self-referential+inscriptions&pg=PA193 |journal=Muqarnas |volume=25 |pages=193 |isbn=9789047426745 |access-date=13 April 2022 |archive-date=23 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220623053418/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Muqarnas_Volume_25/rRewCQAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=alhambra+self-referential+inscriptions&pg=PA193&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=167}} Most of the poetry is inscribed in Nasrid cursive script, while foliate and floral Kufic inscriptions—often formed into arches, columns, enjambments, and "architectural calligrams"—are generally used as decorative elements.<ref name=":0" /> Kufic [[calligram]]s, particularly of the words "blessing" ({{Lang|ar|بركة}} ''baraka'') and "felicity" ({{Lang|ar|يمن}} ''yumn''), are used as decorative motifs in arabesque throughout the palace.<ref name=":0" /> Like the rest of the original stucco decoration, many inscriptions were originally painted and enhanced with colours. Studies indicate that the letters were often painted in gold or silver, or in white with black outlines, which would have made them stand out on the decorated backgrounds that were often painted in red, blue, or turquoise (with other colours mixed into the details).<ref name=":13" />
{{multiple image
| align       = center
| total_width = 820
| image1      = خط أندلسي مشبك بفناء الريحان بقصر الحمراء 1.jpg
| alt1        = {{lang|ar|وفتحت بالسيف الجزيرة}} "And the peninsula was conquered with the sword"
| caption1    = {{lang|ar|وفتحت بالسيف الجزيرة}} <br>"And the peninsula was conquered with the sword"
| image2      = خط أندلسي مشبك بفناء الريحان بقصر الحمراء.jpg
| alt2        = {{lang|ar|يبنون القصور تخدما}} "They build palaces diligently"
| caption2    = {{lang|ar|يبنون القصور تخدما}} <br>"They build palaces diligently"
| footer      = Epigraphic samples from the [[Court of the Myrtles]]: what [[Muhammad Kurd Ali]] described as Andalusi ''mushabbak'' (sinuous) script ({{Lang|ar|خط أندلسي مُشَبَّك}}), or what Western sources refer to as Nasrid cursive (left and centre images)<ref>{{Cite book |last1=محمد كرد علي |first1=محمد بن عبد الرزاق بن محمد |title=غابر الأندلس وحاضرها |date=2011 |publisher=شركة نوابغ الفكر |isbn=978-977-6305-97-7 |oclc=1044625566}}</ref> and floral [[Kufic]] script (right).
| direction   = 
| image3      = خط كوفي بفناء الريحان بقصر الحمراء.jpg
| alt3        = 
| caption3    = {{lang|ar|ولا غالب إلا الله}}<br>"There is no victor but God."
}}