Editing 1453 (section)

=== Western Europe ===

==== Italy ====
In [[Rome]], a plot by the humanist nobleman [[Stefano Porcari]] to overthrow Pope Nicholas V was discovered and put down by Papal forces in early January. Porcari escaped capture multiple times, but was eventually discovered hiding in a chest, and was executed on January 9.{{sfn|D'Elia|2007|pp=210–212}}

A [[Wars in Lombardy|series of regional military conflicts]] across [[Northern Italy]] centered on [[Lombardy]] continued in 1453.{{Sfn|Ilardi|1959|pp=129–138}} [[Francesco I Sforza|Francesco Sforza]], who had risen to power in Milan, allied with the Republic of Florence against their mutual enemies, Venice and the [[Kingdom of Naples]] under [[Alfonso V of Aragon]]. In 1452, Milan and Florence entered into an alliance with [[Charles VII of France]], who was opposed to the potential expansion of Alfonso's control in Italy. Held up by its campaign against the English, France was initially unable to offer any direct aid, but was able to prevent the [[Duchy of Savoy]], a Venetian ally, from invading Lombardy.{{Sfn|Ilardi|1959|pp=136–138}}{{Sfn|Mallett|1998|pp=556–558}}

On June 14, [[Ludovico III Gonzaga, Marquis of Mantua|Ludovico Gonzaga of Mantua]] defended [[Mantua]] against Venetian forces led by his brother, [[Carlo Gonzaga of Milan|Carlo Gonzaga]].{{sfn|Swain|1989|p=443}} [[René of Anjou]], a French nobleman who had previously ruled Naples, allied with Florence and invaded Italy in August 1453 with a force of 2,000 soldiers, which soon grew to 3,000. Initially attempting to negotiate with the Venetians, Rene declared war on the republic on 10 October. Together with Milan and Florence, his forces managed to capture the region around [[Cremona]], [[Bergamo]], and [[Brescia]] by late November, although the onset of winter put a halt to the campaign.{{Sfn|Ilardi|1959|pp=139–140}} Concerned by the fall of Constantinople, Pope Nicholas V attempted to negotiate peace in the region in order to unite Christian Europe against the Ottoman Empire. Peace talks sponsored by Nicholas began in November. His efforts would materialize in April of the following year as the [[Treaty of Lodi]].{{Sfn|Ilardi|1959|pp=139–140}}{{Sfn|Mallett|1998|p=558}}

==== England and France ====

The [[Parliament of England]] met at [[Reading, Berkshire|Reading]] on March 6. The members of the parliament were highly receptive to King [[Henry VI of England|Henry VI]]'s rule due to the crushing of [[Jack Cade's Rebellion]] in 1450 and the reconquest of Gascony by [[John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury|John Talbot]] in 1452. The parliament approved a grant giving Henry the ability to raise an army of 20,000 archers for a period of six months, likely intend for a future reconquest of Gascony or [[Normandy]].{{Sfn|Wolffe|2001|pp=264–266}}{{multiple image
| image1            = Français 5054, fol. 229v, Bataille de Castillon (1453).jpg
| image2            = 15th-century painters - Surrender of the Burghers of Ghent in 1453 - WGA15789 (cropped).jpg
| width             = 200
| caption1          = 1484 depiction of the [[Battle of Castillon]]
| alt1              = A colorful illustration of a group of English and French knights fighting outside a castle. The French have several cannons
| caption2          = 1450s depiction of the surrender of [[Ghent]] to [[Philip the Good]] after the [[Battle of Gavere]]
| alt2              = A group of burghers are kneeling on the ground outside a castle on a starry night. They are surrendering to a group of men on horseback, including Duke Philip the Good, holding a sword
}}

A reinforcement of over 2,000 men led by a number of prominent noblemen was sent to Gascony in March, increasing Talbot's forces to upwards of 7,300. However, the French navy was able to cut off English access to Bordeaux via the [[Gironde estuary]], preventing further reinforcement. On July 17, the French routed the English army at the [[Battle of Castillon]], killing Talbot. Charles VII's forces moved further into Gascony, [[Siege of Bordeaux (1453)|laying siege to Bordeaux]] in August. The city, alongside the holdout of [[Rions]], surrendered on October 20, ending the English presence in the region and bringing a close to the last phase of the [[Hundred Years' War]].{{Sfn|Vale|1969|pp=132–133}}<ref name=":0" />

==== Holy Roman Empire ====
The town of [[Ghent]] was embroiled in [[Ghent War (1449–1453)|a rebellion]] against the [[Burgundian State]] under Duke [[Philip the Good]]. Originating from a political dispute between Philip and Ghent, Philip declared war on the town in 1452. In February–March 1453, a Ghenter raiding party attacked several towns in the surrounding region, including [[Kortrijk]].{{Sfn|Vaughan|1970|pp=303–328}} Philip's rival, Charles VII of France, supported the Ghent rebels, although was unable to offer direct military support due to his ongoing war against the English.{{Sfn|Vale|1998|p=402}} With peace negotiations over the spring stalled, Philip attacked the castles around Ghent in June and July, and decisively defeated the rebels at the [[Battle of Gavere]] on July 23. The town was forced to pay reparations to pay for Philip's campaign, although it was not occupied or plundered.{{Sfn|Vaughan|1970|pp=328–332}}

The [[Giant Bible of Mainz]] was finished on July 9, 1453. It possibly served as an inspiration for the [[Gutenberg Bible]],<ref name=":1" /> the first large-scale book produced using a [[printing press]] and [[Movable type|moveable type]]. [[Johannes Gutenberg]] was overseeing preparations for his bible in 1453 after beginning work on it in 1450. Early copies would be [[Bookbinding|bound]] and distributed by 1456.{{Sfn|Miner|1952|pp=4–6}}{{Sfn|Füssel|2005|pp=18–20, 54}}