Editing History of Austria (section)

== Francis II: French Revolution and wars (1792–1815) ==
{{Main|Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor|l1=Francis II}}
[[File:Friedrich von Amerling 003.jpg|thumb|Francis II 1792–1835]]
[[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor|Francis II]] (1792–1835) was only 24 when he succeeded his father Leopold VII in 1792, but was to reign for nearly half a century and a radical reorganisation of European politics. He inherited a vast bureaucracy created by his uncle whose legacy of reform and welfare was to last throughout the next two centuries. The image of the monarch had profoundly changed, as had the relationship between monarch and subject. His era was overshadowed by events in France, both in terms of the evolving Revolution and the onset of a new form of European warfare with mass citizen armies. Austria recoiled in horror at the execution of Francis' aunt [[Marie Antoinette|Maria Antonia]] in 1793 (despite futile attempts at rescue and even negotiation for release), leading to a wave of repression to fend off such dangerous sentiments influencing Austrian politics. At the same time Europe was consumed by the [[French Revolutionary Wars|French Revolutionary]] (1792–1802) and [[Napoleonic Wars]] (1803–1815). The French Revolution effectively ended Austria's experiment with modernity and reform from above, and marked a retreat to legitimacy.

=== Domestic policy ===
Francis started out cautiously. The bureaucracy was still Josephist and the legal reforms under the guidance of [[Sonnenfels]] resulting in the Criminal Code of 1803 and the Civil Code of 1811. On the other hand, he restored [[Johann Anton von Pergen|Pergen]] to his position of Chief of Police. The discovery of a Jacobin plot in 1794 was a catalyst to the onset of repression. The leaders were executed or imprisoned, but there was little evidence of a tangible threat to the Habsburgs. Suppression of dissent with the Recensorship Commission of 1803 created a void in cultural and intellectual life, yet some of the world's greatest music comes from this time (see below). There were still elements of Josephism abroad, and [[Johann Philipp Stadion, Count von Warthausen|Stadion]], the foreign minister with his propagandist [[Friedrich von Gentz]] was able to appeal to popular nationalism to defeat Napoleon.

What exactly such nationalism actually represented is difficult to precisely identify—certainly it was directed to German culture within the Habsburg lands, but it is not clear to what degree it differentiated between 'Austrian' and 'German'. Certainly many of those such nationalism appealed to were German romantics such as [[Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel]], such that patriotism rather than true nationalism appeared to be the goal. Cultural museums were established and [[Landwehr|citizens militia]] established— but in the German-speaking lands.

Josephism remained alive and well in the other members of Francis' generation. [[Archduke John of Austria|Archduke Johann]] (1782–1859) was a nationalism advocate who was behind the ''Landwehr'' movement, and with [[Joseph Hormayr, Baron zu Hortenburg|Joseph Hormayr]] incited revolt in Bavarian occupied Tyrol, while [[Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen|Archduke Charles]] carried out reform of the military. A statue to Joseph was even set up in Josephsplatz in 1807 to rally the populace. In this way the Archdukes' centralism contrasted with Stadion's decentralisation and attempt to give more say to the estates. Nevertheless, such nationalism was successful in rebuilding Austria throughout its various military and political setbacks of the French wars.

Following Austria's resounding defeat in 1809, Francis blamed reform, and removed the Archdukes from their position. Stadion was replaced by [[Metternich]], who, although a reformer, placed loyalty to the monarch above all. The ''Landwehr'' was abolished, and following the discovery of yet another planned Tyrolean uprising Hormayr and Archduke Johann were interned, and Johann exiled to [[Styria]].

===Revolutionary wars (1792–1802)===
{{Main|French Revolutionary Wars}}

==== War of the First Coalition (1792–1797) ====
{{Main|War of the First Coalition}}
France declared war on Austria on 20 April 1792. The increasing radicalization of the French Revolution (including the execution of the king on 21 January 1793), as well as the French occupation of the Low Countries, brought Britain, the Dutch Republic, and Spain into the war, which became known as the [[War of the First Coalition]]. This first war with France, which lasted until 1797, proved unsuccessful for Austria. After some brief successes against the utterly disorganized French armies in early 1792, the tide turned, and the French overran the [[Austrian Netherlands]] in the last months of 1792. By the [[Battle of Valmy]] in September it was evident to Austria and their Prussian allies that victory against France would elude them, and Austria suffered a further defeat in November at [[Battle of Jemappes|Jemappes]], losing the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium). While the Austrians were so occupied, their erstwhile Prussian allies stabbed them in the back with the 1793 [[Second Partition of Poland]], from which Austria was entirely excluded. This led to the dismissal of Francis's chief minister, [[Philipp von Cobenzl]], and his replacement with [[Franz Maria Thugut]] in March 1793.{{Sfn|Ingrao|2000|loc=ch. 7}}

Once again, there were initial successes against the disorganized armies of the French Republic in 1793, and the Netherlands were recovered. But in 1794 the tide turned once more, and Austrian forces were driven out of the Netherlands again—this time for good. Meanwhile, the Polish Crisis again became critical, resulting in a [[Third Partition of Poland|Third Partition]] (1795), in which Austria managed to secure important gains. The war in the west continued to go badly, as most of the coalition made peace, leaving Austria with only Britain and [[Kingdom of Sardinia|Piedmont-Sardinia]] as allies. In 1796, the [[French Directory]] planned a two-pronged campaign in Germany to force the Austrians to make peace, with a secondary thrust planned into Italy. French forces entered [[Bavaria]] and the edge of the Tyrol, before encountering Austrian forces under [[Archduke Charles of Austria|Archduke Charles]], the Emperor's brother, at [[Battle of Amberg|Amberg]] (24 August 1796) who was successful in driving the French back in Germany. Meanwhile, the [[French Army of Italy]], under the command of the young Corsican General [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]], was brilliantly successful, forcing Piedmont out of the war, driving the Austrians out of [[Lombardy]] and besieging [[Mantua]]. Following the capture of Mantua in early 1797, Bonaparte advanced north through the Alps against Vienna, while new French armies moved again into Germany. Austria sued for peace. By the terms of the [[Treaty of Campo Formio]] of 1797, Austria renounced its claims to the Netherlands and Lombardy, in exchange for which it was granted the territories of the [[Republic of Venice]] with the French. The Austrians also provisionally recognized the French annexation of the Left Bank of the Rhine, and agreed in principle that the German princes of the region should be compensated with ecclesiastical lands on the other side of the Rhine.

==== War of the Second Coalition (1798–1801) ====
{{Main|War of the Second Coalition}}
The peace did not last for long. Soon, differences emerged between the Austrians and French over the reorganization of Germany, and Austria joined Russia, Britain, and Naples in the [[War of the Second Coalition]] in 1799. Although Austro-Russian forces were initially successful in driving the French from Italy, the tide soon turned—the Russians withdrew from the war after a defeat at [[First Battle of Zurich|Zürich]] (1799) which they blamed on Austrian recklessness, and the Austrians were defeated by Bonaparte who was now the [[French Consulate|First Consul]], at [[Battle of Marengo|Marengo]], which forced them to withdraw from Italy, and then in Germany at [[Battle of Hohenlinden|Hohenlinden]]. These defeats forced Thugut's resignation, and Austria, now led by [[Ludwig Cobenzl]], to make peace at [[Treaty of Lunéville|Lunéville]] in early 1801. The terms were mild—the terms of Campo Formio were largely reinstated, but now the way was clear for a reorganization of the Empire on French lines. By the [[German Mediatisation#Final Recess of February 1803|Imperial Deputation Report of 1803]], the Holy Roman Empire was entirely reorganized, with nearly all of the ecclesiastical territories and free cities, traditionally the parts of the Empire most friendly to the House of Austria, eliminated.

=== Napoleonic wars and end of Empire (1803–1815) ===
{{Main|Napoleonic Wars}}
With Bonaparte's assumption of the title of Emperor of the [[First French Empire]] on 18 May 1804, Francis II, seeing the writing on the wall for the old Empire, and arbitrarily took the new title of "[[Austrian Empire|Emperor of Austria]]" as Francis I, in addition to his title of Holy Roman Emperor. This earned him the title of Double Emperor (Francis II of the Holy Roman Empire, Francis I of Austria). The arrival of a new, French, emperor on the scene and the restructuring of the old presented a larger threat to the Habsburgs than their territorial losses to date, for there was no longer any certainty that they would continue to be elected. Francis had himself made emperor of the new Austrian Empire on 11 August not long after Napoleon. The new empire referred to not a new state but to the lands ruled by Austria, that is the Habsburgs, which was effectively many states.

==== War of the Third Coalition (1805) ====
{{Main|War of the Third Coalition}}
Soon, Napoleon's continuing machinations in Italy, including the annexation of [[Genoa]] and [[Parma]], led once again to war in 1805—the [[War of the Third Coalition]], in which Austria, Britain, Russia, and Sweden took on Napoleon. The Austrian forces began the war by invading [[Bavaria]], a key French ally in Germany, but were soon outmaneuvered and forced to surrender by Napoleon at [[Battle of Ulm|Ulm]], before the main Austro-Russian force was defeated at [[Battle of Austerlitz|Austerlitz]] on 2 December. Napoleon entered Vienna itself, as much a celebrity as conqueror. By the [[Treaty of Pressburg (1805)|Treaty of Pressburg]], Austria was forced to give up large amounts of territory—[[Dalmatia]] to France, [[Venetia (region)|Venetia]] to Napoleon's Kingdom of Italy, the [[German Tyrol|Tyrol]] to Bavaria, and Austria's various Swabian territories to [[Baden Germany|Baden]] and [[Württemberg]], although [[Salzburg (state)|Salzburg]], formerly held by Francis's younger brother, the previous Grand Duke of Tuscany, was annexed by Austria as compensation.

The defeat meant the end of the old Holy Roman Empire. Napoleon's satellite states in southern and Western Germany seceded from the Empire in the summer of 1806, forming the [[Confederation of the Rhine]], and a few days later Francis proclaimed the Empire dissolved, and renounced the old imperial crown on 6 August 1806.

==== War of the Fifth Coalition (1809) ====
{{Main|War of the Fifth Coalition}}
[[File:Johann Peter Krafft 003.jpg|thumb|left|Victorious [[Archduke Charles of Austria]] during the [[Battle of Aspern-Essling]] (21–22 May 1809)]]
Over the next three years Austria, whose foreign policy was now directed by [[Philipp Stadion]], attempted to maintain peace with France, avoiding the [[War of the Fourth Coalition]] (1806–1807) but obliged to do France's bidding. The overthrow of the Spanish Bourbons in 1808 was deeply disturbing to the Habsburgs, who rather desperately went to war once again in 1809, the [[War of the Fifth Coalition]] this time with no continental allies, but the United Kingdom. Stadion's attempts to generate popular uprisings in Germany were unsuccessful, and the Russians honoured their alliance with France, so Austria was once again defeated at the [[Battle of Wagram]], although at greater cost than Napoleon, who had suffered his first battlefield defeat in this war, at [[Battle of Aspern-Essling|Aspern-Essling]], had expected. However Napoleon had already re-occupied Vienna. The terms of the subsequent [[Treaty of Schönbrunn]] were quite harsh. Austria lost Salzburg to Bavaria, some of its Polish lands to Russia, and its remaining territory on the Adriatic (including much of Carinthia and Styria) to Napoleon's [[Illyrian Provinces]]. Austria became a virtual subject state of France.

==== War of the Sixth Coalition (1812–1814) ====
{{Main|War of the Sixth Coalition}}
[[File:Europe 1812 map en.png|thumb|right|250px|Europe in 1812 after several French victories]]
[[Klemens von Metternich]], the new Austrian foreign minister, aimed to pursue a pro-French policy.{{Sfn|Kissinger|1957}} Francis II's daughter [[Marie Louise of Austria|Marie Louise]], was married to Napoleon in 1810. Austria was effectively [[bankrupt]] by 1811 and the paper money lost considerable value, but contributed an army to Napoleon's invasion of Russia in March 1812. With Napoleon's disastrous defeat in Russia at the end of the year, and Prussia's defection to the Russian side in March 1813, Metternich began slowly to shift his policy. Initially he aimed to mediate a peace between France and its continental enemies, but when it became apparent that Napoleon was not interested in compromise, Austria joined the allies and declared war on France in August 1813 in the [[War of the Sixth Coalition]] (1812–1814). The Austrian intervention was decisive. Napoleon was defeated at [[Battle of Leipzig|Leipzig]] in October, and forced to withdraw into France itself. As 1814 began, the Allied forces invaded France. Initially, Metternich remained unsure as to whether he wanted Napoleon to remain on the throne, a Marie Louise regency for Napoleon's young son, or a Bourbon restoration, but he was eventually brought around by British Foreign Secretary [[Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh|Lord Castlereagh]] to the last position. Napoleon abdicated on 3 April 1814, and [[Louis XVIII]] was restored, soon negotiating a peace treaty with the victorious allies at [[Treaty of Paris (1814)|Paris]] in June, while Napoleon was exiled to [[Elba]].

==== War of the Seventh Coalition (1815) ====
{{Main|War of the Seventh Coalition}}
Napoleon escaped in February 1815, Louis fled and thus the final phase of the war, the [[War of the Seventh Coalition]], ensued—the so-called [[Hundred Days]] of Napoleon's attempt at restoration. This culminated with the decisive [[Battle of Waterloo]] in June. The Napoleonic wars ended with the second [[Treaty of Paris (1815)|Treaty of Paris]] that year, and Napoleon's final exile to [[St Helena]].

=== Congress of Vienna (1815) ===
{{Main|Congress of Vienna}}
[[File:Europe 1815 map en.png|thumb|right|250px|Europe after the Congress of Vienna]]
With the completion of the long running French wars a new order was required in Europe and the heads of the European states gathered in Vienna for a prolonged discussion of Europe's future, although the Congress was actually convened in September 1814 prior to Napoleon's attempted return, and completed on 9 June 1815, nine days before the [[Battle of Waterloo]]. At the completion of the Napoleonic wars, Austria found itself on the winning side as a new European leader, largely due to [[Klemens von Metternich|Metternich]]'s diplomatic skills. It was as much a grand social event of the representatives of the [[great powers]] as a true Congress and was chaired by Metternich. Its purpose was to restore a new European order to emerge from the chaos of the Napoleonic wars. While Austria was the diplomatic leader, the military victory was largely that of Russia and Prussia, aided by Britain and Spain, and Austria had little to add to the final defeat of Napoleon on 18 June 1815 at Waterloo.{{Sfn|Beller|2006|pp=112-113}} Metternich's intent was to create a [[Balance of power (international relations)|balance of power]] in Europe, under a new entity, the [[German Confederation]] with Austrian leadership, out of the ashes of the [[Holy Roman Empire]].{{Sfn|Pohanka|2011|p=60}}

The resulting order was referred to as the [[Concert of Europe]], which would now meet regularly to resolve outstanding differences. In addition to redrawing the political map, it established [[spheres of influence]]. Achieving the presidency of this new entity was Austria's greatest gain from the Congress. What the Congress could not do was to recover the old order or ''ancien régime'' on which Austrian and Habsburg authority had rested. In the new order, a [[Holy Alliance]] was created between Austria, Russia and Prussia. This was subsequently enlarged to include most European nations. Notable exceptions were Great Britain, wary of Metternich's strategy of repressive interventionism, and the Ottoman Empire. In the redrawing of the European map, Austrian gains were modest compared to Russia and Prussia, reflecting its relatively weak negotiating position. Austria regained most of the territory it had lost to Napoleon in the western part of the nation ([[Tyrol (federal state)|Tyrol]], [[Salzburg (federal state)|Salzburg]] and [[Vorarlberg]]). In Italy it gained the [[Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia|Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia]], [[Tuscany]], [[Modena]], [[Parma]] and [[Piacenza]]. These latter political entities were ruled by various branches of the Habsburgs. It did not, however, regain Belgium and the [[Austrian Netherlands]], but the trading of territories restored a contiguous territory, as envisaged by Joseph II, and gave Austria control over Italy. The Emperor Francis was unwilling to adapt to this new order, requiring diplomacy on Metternich's part, depicting it as conservative Romanticism, religion and order versus the revolutionary spirit of 1789. Thus, the Holy Alliance became a mechanism for countering any moves against legitimate order. Metternich has therefore been portrayed Europe's fireman, extinguishing any signs of revolutionary spirit. The resultant onset of peace provided the opportunity for both reforms and prosperity in Austria, but its backward looking policies within a Europe characterised by rapid change set the scene for eventual failure.{{Sfn|Pohanka|2011|p=59}}{{Sfn|Beller|2006|pp=113-114}}

=== The arts ===
Napoleonic Vienna was the Vienna of [[Beethoven]], whose single opera [[Fidelio]] was premiered there in 1805, attended by the French military. It was also the era of the [[Symphony No. 3 (Beethoven)|third (Eroica)]] (1805) with its ambivalent relation to Napoleon, and the [[Symphony No. 5 (Beethoven)|fifth (Schicksals-)]] and the [[Symphony No. 6 (Beethoven)|sixth (Pastorale)]] symphonies (1808).