Editing Yuan Shikai (section)

== Becoming emperor ==
{{See also|Empire of China (1915–1916)}}

[[File:1 dollar Yuan Shikai 1914 - 3.png|thumb|left|300px|The [[Yuan Shikai coinage|Yuan Shikai dollar]] ([[Chinese yuan|yuan]] in Chinese), issued for the first time in 1914, became a dominant coin type of the Republic of China.]]

[[File:5 Yuan - Bank of China (1914) 01.jpg|thumb|left|300px| A banknote from the early Republic of China depicting the face of President Yuan Shikai.]]

Tensions between the KMT and Yuan continued to intensify. After arriving in Peking, the elected Parliament attempted to gain control over Yuan, to develop a permanent constitution, and to hold a legitimate, open presidential election. Because he had authorized $100 million of "[[Reorganisation loan affair|reorganization loans]]" from a variety of foreign banks, the KMT in particular were highly critical of Yuan's handling of the national budget.  Yuan's crackdown on the KMT began in 1913, with the suppression and bribery of KMT members in the two legislative chambers. Anti-Yuan revolutionaries also claimed Yuan orchestrated the collapse of the KMT internally and dismissed governors interpreted as being pro-KMT.<ref>Spence, 1999 p. 277.</ref>

=== Second revolution ===
Seeing the situation for his party worsen, Sun Yat-sen fled to Japan in August 1913, and called for a Second Revolution, this time against Yuan Shikai.<ref>Albert A. Altman, and Harold Z. Schiffrin, "Sun Yat-sen and the Japanese: 1914–16." ''Modern Asian Studies'' 6.4 (1972): 385–400.</ref> Subsequently, Yuan gradually took over the government, using the military as the base of his power. He dissolved the national and provincial assemblies, and the House of Representatives and Senate were replaced by the newly formed "Council of State", with [[Duan Qirui]], his trusted Beiyang lieutenant, as prime minister. He relied on the American-educated [[Tsai Tingkan]] for English translation and connections with western powers. Finally, Yuan had himself elected president to a five-year term, publicly labelled the KMT a seditious organization, ordered the KMT's dissolution, and evicted all its members from Parliament. The KMT's "Second Revolution" ended in failure as Yuan's troops achieved complete victory over revolutionary uprisings. Provincial governors with KMT loyalties who remained willingly submitted to Yuan. Because those commanders not loyal to Yuan were effectively removed from power, the Second Revolution cemented Yuan's power.<ref>Bonavia 36</ref><ref>Norman D. Palmer, "Makers of Modern China: II. The Strong Man: Yuan Shih-kai" ''Current History''   (Sep 1948): 15#85 pp. 149–55.</ref>

In January 1914, China's Parliament was formally dissolved. To give his government a semblance of legitimacy, Yuan convened a body of 66 men from his cabinet who, on 1 May 1914, produced a "constitutional compact" that effectively replaced China's provisional constitution. The new legal status quo gave Yuan, as president, practically unlimited powers over China's military, finances, foreign policy, and the rights of China's citizens. Yuan justified these reforms by stating that representative democracy had been proven inefficient by political infighting.<ref>Spence, Jonathan D. (1999) ''The Search for Modern China'', W.W. Norton and Company. p. 279. {{ISBN|0-393-97351-4}}.</ref>

After his victory, Yuan reorganized the provincial governments. Each province was supported by a military governor ({{lang|zh|都督}}) as well as a civil authority, giving each governor control of his own army. This helped lay the foundations for the [[warlord]]ism that crippled China over the next two decades.

During Yuan's presidency, [[Yuan Shikai coinage|silver coinage featuring his portrait]] was introduced. This coin type was the first "dollar" coin of the central authorities of the Republic of China to be minted in large quantities. It became a staple silver coin type during the first half of the 20th century and was struck for the last time as late as the 1950s. The coins were also extensively forged.<ref>{{cite book |last=Meyerhofer |first=Adi |title=袁大头. Yuan Shi-kai Dollar: 'Fat Man Dollar' Forgeries and Remints |url=http://zenwort.lima-city.de/YuanShikai-FatManDollar.pdf |year=2013 |location=Munich |access-date=25 April 2013 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303223113/http://zenwort.lima-city.de/YuanShikai-FatManDollar.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Japan's 21 demands ===
{{Main|Twenty-One Demands}}
In 1914, Japan captured the German colony at [[Qingdao]]. In January 1915, Japan sent a secret ultimatum, known as the [[Twenty-One Demands]], to Beijing.{{sfn|Crean|2024|page=45}} Japan demanded an extension of [[extraterritoriality]], the sale of businesses in debt to Japan and the cession of Qingdao to Japan, and virtual control of finance and the local police. When these demands were made public, hostility within China was expressed in nationwide anti-Japanese demonstrations and an effective national boycott of Japanese goods.  With support from Britain and the United States Yuan secured Japan's dropping part five of the demands, which would have given Japan a general control of Chinese affairs. However he did accept the less onerous terms and that led to a decline in the popularity of Yuan's government.<ref>Zhitian Luo, "National humiliation and national assertion-The Chinese response to the twenty-one demands" ''Modern Asian Studies'' (1993) 27#2 pp. 297–319 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/312771 online]</ref>

=== Revival of hereditary monarchy ===
{{Infobox monarchy
|native_name= {{nobold|{{lang|zh|中華帝國皇帝}}}}
|residence=[[Forbidden City]], [[Beijing]]
|border=imperial
|began=12 December 1915
|caption=The President dressed in the traditional ''chaofu'' attire, before his subsequent coronation. 1915.
|image=袁世凱祭天.jpg
|coatofarms=Twelve Symbols national emblem of China.svg
|coatofarmscaption='''Imperial Emblem'''
|coatofarmssize=120px
|ended=22 March 1916
|first_monarch=Hongxian
|last_monarch=
|royal_title=Emperor
|realm=China
|style=[[Imperial Majesty (style)|His Imperial Majesty]]|Era=}}

To build up his own authority, Yuan began to re-institute elements of state [[Confucianism]]. As the main proponent of reviving Qing state religious observances, Yuan effectively participated as emperor in rituals held at the Qing [[Temple of Heaven]]. In late 1915, rumours were floated of a popular consensus that the hereditary monarchy should be revived. With his power secure, many of Yuan's supporters, notably monarchist [[Yang Du]], advocated for a revival of the hereditary monarchy, asking Yuan to take on the title of Emperor. Yang reasoned that the Chinese masses had long been used to monarchic rule, the Republic had been effective only as a transitional phase to end Manchu rule, and China's political situation demanded the stability that only a dynastic monarchy could ensure. The American political scientist [[Frank Johnson Goodnow]] suggested a similar idea. Negotiators representing Japan had also offered to support Yuan's ambitions as one of the rewards for Yuan's support of the Twenty-One Demands.<ref>Barnouin, Barbara and Yu Changgen. ''Zhou Enlai: A Political Life''. Hong Kong: Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2006. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NztlWQeXf2IC&pg=PA14 p. 14] retrieved 12 March 2011.</ref>

On 20 November 1915, Yuan held a specially convened "Representative Assembly" which voted unanimously to offer Yuan the throne. On 12 December 1915, Yuan "accepted" the invitation and proclaimed himself Emperor of the Chinese Empire ({{zh|s=中华帝国大皇帝|t=中華帝國大皇帝|p=Zhōnghuá Dìguó Dà Huángdì}}) under the [[Chinese era name|era name]] of Hongxian ({{zh|s=洪宪|t=洪憲|p=Hóngxiàn}}; i.e. ''Constitutional Abundance''). The new [[Empire of China (1915–16)|Empire of China]] was to formally begin on 1 January 1916, when Yuan intended to conduct the accession rites. Soon after becoming emperor, the Yuan placed an order with the former imperial potters for a 40,000-piece porcelain set costing 1.4 million yuan, a large jade seal, and two imperial robes costing 400,000 yuan each.<ref name="Spence, Jonathan D. 1999 p. 274" /><ref name="Zhengyuan" />

=== Public and international reactions to dynastic monarchy's revival ===
Yuan expected widespread domestic and international support for his reign. British diplomats and bankers had previously worked hard to help him succeed. They had set up a [[China Consortium|banking consortium]] that loaned Yuan's government £25 million in April 1913.<ref>Hirata Koji,  "Britain's Men on the Spot in China: John Jordan, Yuan Shikai, and the Reorganization Loan, 1912–1914." ''Modern Asian Studies'' 47.3 (2013): 895–934.</ref> However, he and his supporters had badly miscalculated. Many of the emperor's closest supporters abandoned him, and the solidarity of the emperor's Beiyang clique of military protégés dissolved. There were open protests throughout China denouncing Yuan. Foreign governments, including Japan, suddenly proved indifferent or openly hostile to him, not giving him the recognition anticipated.<ref name="Spence3">Spence, Jonathan D. (1999) ''The Search for Modern China'', p. 282.</ref> Rebels bombed the presidential palace from the air in 1916.{{sfn|Crean|2024|page=45}} Sun Yat-sen, who had fled to Tokyo and set up a base there, organized efforts to overthrow Yuan. The emperor's sons publicly fought over the title of "Crown Prince", and formerly loyal subordinates such as [[Duan Qirui]] and [[Xu Shichang]] left him to create their own factions.

=== Abandonment of monarchy and death ===
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Faced with widespread opposition, Yuan repeatedly delayed the accession rites in order to appease his foes, but his prestige was irreparably damaged and province after province continued to voice disapproval. On 25 December 1915, [[Yunnan]]'s military governor, [[Cai E]], rebelled, launching the [[National Protection War]]. The governor of [[Guizhou]] followed in January 1916, and [[Guangxi]] declared independence in March. Funding for Yuan's accession ceremony was cut on 1 March.

Yuan formally abdicated and restored the Republic on 22 March after being emperor for only 83 days; primarily due to these mounting revolts as well as declining health from [[uraemia]]. This was not enough for his enemies, who called for his resignation as president, causing more provinces to rebel. Yuan died of uraemia at 10 a.m. on 6 June 1916, at the age of fifty-six.<ref name="Zhengyuan" /><ref name="Spence3" />

Yuan's remains were moved to [[Henan|his home province]] and placed in a large mausoleum in [[Anyang]]. In 1928, the tomb was looted by [[Feng Yuxiang]] and his soldiers during the [[Northern Expedition]].

Yuan had a wife and nine concubines, who bore him 17 sons and 15 daughters, but only three were prominent: Prince [[Yuan Keding]], Prince [[Yuan Kewen]], and Prince Yuan Keliang.