Editing Weimar Republic (section)

===November Revolution (1918-1919)===
{{Main|German Revolution of 1918-1919}}
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1976-067-10A, Matrosen-Aufstand.jpg|thumb|Sailors during the mutiny in Kiel, November 1918]]

On 29 October 1918, a rebellion broke out among sailors at [[Wilhelmshaven]]; similar unrest then spread to become the [[Kiel mutiny]] on 3 November. Sailors, soldiers and workers began electing [[German workers' and soldiers' councils 1918–1919|workers' and soldiers' councils]] ({{Lang|de|Arbeiter- und Soldatenräte}}) modelled after the [[soviet (council)|soviets]] of the 1917 [[Russian Revolution]]. The revolution spread throughout Germany, and participants seized military and civil power in individual cities.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The November revolution, 1918/1919 |url=https://www.bundestag.de/resource/blob/189772/8b9e17bd8d64e64c8e3a95fc2305e132/november_revolution-data.pdf |website=Deutscher Bundestag}}</ref> The power takeovers were achieved everywhere without loss of life.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}

At the time, the socialist movement, which represented mostly laborers, was split among two major left-wing parties: the [[Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany]] (USPD), which called for immediate peace negotiations and favored a soviet-style command economy, and the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany]] (SPD), also known as the Majority Social Democratic Party of Germany (MSPD), which had supported the war and favoured a parliamentary system. The rebellion caused great fear among supporters of the monarchy and in the middle classes because of the soviet-style aspirations of the councils. To centrist and conservative citizens, the country looked to be on the verge of a communist revolution.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Conradt |first=David P. |url={{Google books|plg2PcqF73kC|page=5|plainurl=yes}} |title=The German Polity |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-547-15086-4 |location=Boston, New York |pages=5}}</ref>

By 7 November, the revolution had reached [[Munich]], resulting in the flight of King [[Ludwig III of Bavaria]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The End of the Monarchy |url=https://www.bavarikon.de/object/bav:BSB-CMS-0000000000003622?lang=en |access-date=21 November 2023 |website=bavarikon}}</ref> The MSPD decided to make use of their support at the grassroots level and put themselves at the front of the movement. They joined the calls for Kaiser [[Wilhelm II, German Emperor|Wilhelm II]] abdicate, and when he refused, Chancellor [[Maximilian of Baden]] made a public announcement that the Kaiser and [[Crown Prince Wilhelm]] had already done so.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Urbach |first=Karina |date=13 July 2016 |editor-last=Daniel |editor-first=Ute |editor2-last=Gatrell |editor2-first=Peter |editor3-last=Janz |editor3-first=Oliver |editor4-last=Jones |editor4-first=Heather |editor5-last=Keene |editor5-first=Jennifer |editor6-last=Kramer |editor6-first=Alan |editor7-last=Nasson |editor7-first=Bill |title=Maximilian, Prince of Baden |url=https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/maximilian_prince_of_baden |website=1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War |publisher=Freie Universität Berlin}}</ref> [[Gustav Noske]] (MSPD) was sent to Kiel to prevent any further unrest and took on the task of controlling the mutinous sailors and their supporters in the Kiel barracks. The sailors and soldiers welcomed him, and he was able to defuse the situation.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Aulke |first=Julian |date=23 October 2017 |editor-last=Daniel |editor-first=Ute |editor2-last=Gatrell |editor2-first=Peter |editor3-last=Janz |editor3-first=Oliver |editor4-last=Jones |editor4-first=Heather |editor5-last=Keene |editor5-first=Jennifer |editor6-last=Kramer |editor6-first=Alan |editor7-last=Nasson |editor7-first=Bill |title=Noske, Gustav |url=https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/noske_gustav |access-date=18 April 2024 |website=1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War |publisher=Freie Universität Berlin}}</ref>
{{Annotated image
| image = Ausrufung Republik Scheidemann.jpg
| image-width = 500
| image-left = -200
| image-top = -120
| width = 175
| height = 285
| float =
| annotations =
| caption = Philipp Scheidemann proclaiming the German Republic from the Reichstag building
}}
On 9 November 1918, the [[Proclamation of the republic in Germany|German Republic was proclaimed]] by MSPD member [[Philipp Scheidemann]] at the Reichstag building in Berlin, angering [[Friedrich Ebert]], the leader of the MSPD, who thought that the question of monarchy or republic should be answered by a national assembly.{{Sfn|Haffner|2002|p=90}} Two hours later, a [[Proclamation of the republic in Germany#Liebknecht's proclamation|Free Socialist Republic was proclaimed]] at the [[Berlin Palace]]. The proclamation was issued by [[Karl Liebknecht]], co-leader with [[Rosa Luxemburg]] of the communist {{Lang|de|Spartakusbund}} ([[Spartacus League]]), a group of a few hundred supporters of the Russian Revolution that had allied itself with the USPD in 1917.<ref name="Sturm-2011">{{Cite web |last=Sturm |first=Reinhard |date=23 December 2011 |title=Vom Kaiserreich zur Republik 1918/19 |trans-title=From Empire to Republic 1918/19 |url=https://www.bpb.de/themen/erster-weltkrieg-weimar/weimarer-republik/275834/vom-kaiserreich-zur-republik-1918-19/ |access-date=31 March 2023 |website=Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung |language=de}}</ref> On the same day, in a move that was contrary to the constitution because only the Kaiser could appoint a chancellor, Prince Max of Baden, at Ebert's request, transferred his powers as chancellor to him.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Schaefer |first=Karen |url={{Google books|UwLoDwAAQBAJ|page=viii|plainurl=yes}} |title=German Military and the Weimar Republic |publisher=Pen & Sword Books Limited |year=2020 |isbn=9781526764355 |location=Barnsley, South Yorkshire, England |pages=viii}}</ref> In view of the mass support for more radical reforms among the workers' councils, a coalition government called the [[Council of the People's Deputies]] ({{Lang|de|Rat der Volksbeauftragten}}) was established, consisting of three MSPD and three USPD members. Led by Ebert for the MSPD and [[Hugo Haase]] for the USPD, it governed Germany from November 1918 to January 1919.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Altmann |first=Gerhard |date=11 April 2000 |title=Der Rat der Volksbeauftragten |url=https://www.dhm.de/lemo/kapitel/weimarer-republik/revolution-191819/rat-der-volksbeauftragten.html |access-date=2 May 2023 |website=Deutsches Historisches Museum |language=de}}</ref> Although the new government was confirmed by the Berlin Workers' and Soldiers' Council, it was opposed by the Spartacus League.

[[File:Bundesarchiv B 145 Bild-P011502, Berlin, Reichskanzlei, Philipp Scheidemann.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Philipp Scheidemann]] addresses a crowd from a window of the [[Reich Chancellery]], 9 November 1918.]]

On 11 November 1918, [[Armistice of 11 November 1918|an armistice was signed at Compiègne]] by German representatives. It effectively ended military operations between [[Allies of World War I|the Allies]] and Germany. It amounted to a German capitulation, without any concessions by the Allies; the naval blockade was to continue until complete peace terms were agreed on.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kramer |first=Alan |date=22 January 2020 |editor-last=Daniel |editor-first=Ute |editor2-last=Gatrell |editor2-first=Peter |editor3-last=Janz |editor3-first=Oliver |editor4-last=Jones |editor4-first=Heather |editor5-last=Keene |editor5-first=Jennifer |editor6-last=Kramer |editor6-first=Alan |editor7-last=Nasson |editor7-first=Bill |title=Naval Blockade (of Germany) |url=https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/naval_blockade_of_germany |access-date=1 April 2023 |website=1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War |publisher=Freie Universität Berlin}}</ref>

The Executive Council of the Workers' and Soldiers' Council of Greater Berlin called for a [[German workers' and soldiers' councils 1918–1919#Reich Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' Councils|National Congress of Councils]] ({{Lang|de|Reichsrätekongress}}) which took place from 16 to 21 December 1918. Against the opposition of the more radical members who demanded a socialist republic, Ebert, backed by the large MSPD majority at the Congress, was able to schedule the election for a provisional [[Weimar National Assembly|National Assembly]] that would act as an interim parliament and be given the task of writing a democratic constitution for a parliamentary government.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Der Reichskongress der Arbeiter- und Soldatenräte |trans-title=The Reich Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' Councils |url=https://www.dhm.de/lemo/kapitel/weimarer-republik/revolution-191819/reichsraetekongress-1918.html |access-date=31 March 2023 |website=Deutsches Historisches Museum |language=de}}</ref>

To ensure that the fledgling government maintained control over the country, Ebert and General [[Wilhelm Groener]], Ludendorff's successor as leader of the Supreme Army Command (OHL), concluded the secret [[Ebert–Groener pact]] on 10 November. Over the telephone, Ebert promised that he would allow sole command of the troops to remain with the officer corps, while Groener pledged that the military would be loyal to the government and that it would help it in its fight against left-wing revolutionaries.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 August 2015 |title=Ebert-Groener-Pakt |url=https://www.dhm.de/lemo/kapitel/weimarer-republik/revolution/ebertgroener/ |website=Deutsches Historisches Museum |language=de}}</ref> The agreement marked the acceptance of the new government by the military, but the new ''Reichswehr'' armed forces, limited by the [[Treaty of Versailles]] to 100,000 army soldiers and 15,000 sailors, remained fully under the control of the German officer class.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Head |first=Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FfvADwAAQBAJ&dq=treaty+versailles+%22german+officer+class%22&pg=PT116 |title=Domestic Military Powers, Law and Human Rights: Calling Out the Armed Forces |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2019 |isbn=9781000754025 |location=United Kingdom |pages=ebook}}</ref>

A rift developed between the MSPD and USPD after Ebert called upon the OHL for troops to put down a [[1918 Christmas crisis|mutiny]] by a leftist military unit on 23/24 December 1918 in which members of the ''[[Volksmarinedivision]]'' (People's Navy Division) captured the city's garrison commander [[Otto Wels]] of the MSPD and occupied the Reich Chancellery where the Council of the People's Deputies had its offices. The ensuing street fighting left 11 {{Lang|de|Volksmarinedivision}} members and 56 members of the regular army dead.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Weihnachtskämpfe am Berliner Schloss |trans-title=Christmas Battles at the Berlin Palace |url=https://www.bundesarchiv.de/DE/Content/Dokumente-zur-Zeitgeschichte/19181223_weihnachtskaempfe.html |access-date=31 March 2023 |website=Bundesarchiv |language=de}}</ref> The USPD leaders were angered by what they believed was treachery by the MSPD, which in their view had joined with the anti-communist military to suppress the revolution. As a result, the USPD left the Council of the People's Deputies after only seven weeks. On 30 December, the split deepened when the [[Communist Party of Germany]] (KPD) was formed out of a number of radical left-wing groups, including the [[Spartacus League]] and the left wing of the USPD.<ref name="Sturm-2011" />

In January, the Spartacus League, in what was known as the [[Spartacist uprising]], took advantage of a large strike in Berlin and attempted to establish a communist government. The uprising was put down by paramilitary ''[[Freikorps]]'' units consisting of volunteer soldiers. Following bloody street fights, [[Rosa Luxemburg]] and [[Karl Liebknecht]] were summarily killed after their arrests on 15 January.<ref>{{cite book |first=William A. |last=Pelz |title=Against Capitalism: The European Left on the March |publisher=Peter Lang |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-8204-6776-4 |location=New York |pages=116–118}}</ref> With the affirmation of Ebert, those responsible were not tried before a court-martial, leading to lenient sentences, which made Ebert unpopular among radical leftists.{{Citation needed|date=April 2023}}

[[File:Offizielle Postkarte Weimarer Nationalversammlung.jpg|thumb|left|Official postcard of the [[Weimar National Assembly|National Assembly]]]]
[[File:Chart Weimar Constitution.svg|thumb|Chart of the Weimar Constitution of 11 August 1919. It replaced the law concerning the provisional Reich power of 10 February 1919.]]
The [[1919 German federal election|National Assembly election]], in which women were allowed to vote for the first time, took place on 19 January 1919.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Longerich |first=Peter |title=Deutschland 1918–1933. Die Weimarer Republik. Handbuch zur Geschichte |date=1995 |publisher=Fackelträger |isbn=3-7716-2208-5 |location=Hanover |page=86 |language=de |oclc=36280690}}</ref> The MSPD won the largest share of the votes at 37.9%, with the USPD fifth at 7.6%.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Das Deutsche Reich Wahl zur Nationalversammlung 1919 |trans-title=The German Reich Election to the National Assembly 1919 |url=http://www.gonschior.de/weimar/Deutschland/NV.html |access-date=2 May 2023 |website=gonschior.de |language=de}}</ref> To avoid the ongoing fights in Berlin, the National Assembly convened in the city of [[Weimar]], giving the future Republic its unofficial name. The [[Weimar Constitution]] created a parliamentary republic with the Reichstag elected by [[proportional representation]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Weimar Republic |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Weimar-Republic |access-date=2 May 2023 |website=Britannica}}</ref>

During the debates in Weimar, fighting continued sporadically across Germany. On 7 April 1919, the [[Bavarian Soviet Republic]] was declared in Munich but quickly put down by ''Freikorps'' and remnants of the regular army. The fall of the [[Munich Soviet Republic]] to these units, many of which were on the extreme right, resulted in the growth of far-right, anti-Semitic movements and organizations in [[Bavaria]], including [[Organisation Consul]], the [[Nazi Party]], and societies of exiled Russian monarchists.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bischel |first=Matthias |date=22 March 2019 |title=Räterepublik Baiern (1919) |trans-title=Bavarian Soviet Republic |url=https://www.historisches-lexikon-bayerns.de/Lexikon/Räterepublik_Baiern_(1919) |access-date=1 April 2023 |website=Historisches Lexikon Bayerns |language=de}}</ref> Revolutionary sentiment also arose in the eastern states where interethnic discontent between Germans and minority Poles led to the [[Silesian Uprisings]] and the [[Greater Poland uprising (1918–1919)|Greater Poland uprising]] in the German [[Province of Posen]], which became part of the [[Second Polish Republic]] under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Scriba |first=Arnulf |date=2 September 2014 |title=Die Teilung Oberschlesiens |trans-title=The partition of Upper Silesia |url=https://www.dhm.de/lemo/kapitel/weimarer-republik/aussenpolitik/teilung-oberschlesiens-1921.html |access-date=2 May 2023 |website=Deutsches Historisches Museum |language=de}}</ref>