Editing Volapük (section)

==Grammar==
The [[grammar]] is based on that of typical European languages, but with an [[agglutinative language|agglutinative]] character: grammatical inflections are indicated by stringing together separate [[affix]]es for each element of meaning.

===Nouns===
Nouns inflect for case and number, but not for gender.

The following is the declension of the Volapük word ''vol'' "world":

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!Case!! Singular !! Plural
|-
!Nominative
| ''vol'' (world)||| ''vols'' (worlds)
|-
!Genitive
| ''vola'' (of the world)|| ''volas'' (of the worlds)
|-
!Dative
| ''vole'' (to the world) || ''voles'' (to the worlds)
|-
!Accusative
| ''voli'' (world) || ''volis'' (worlds)
|}

As in [[German language|German]], the Volapük noun has four cases: [[nominative case|nominative]], [[genitive case|genitive]], [[dative case|dative]] and [[accusative case|accusative]]. In compound words, the first part of the compound is usually separated from the second by the genitive termination ''-a'', e.g.&nbsp;''Vola-pük'', "of-world language": "language of the world".  However, the other case endings (''-e'' dative, ''-i'' accusative) are sometimes used if applicable, or the roots may be agglutinated in the nominative, with no separating vowel.

===Adjectives and adverbs===
[[Adjective]]s, formed by the suffix ''-ik'', normally follow the noun they qualify.  They do not agree with the noun in number and case in that position, but they do if they precede the noun, are separated from it by intervening words, or stand alone.  [[Adverb]]s are formed by suffixing ''-o'', either to the root or to the adjectival ''-ik'' (''gudik'' "good", ''gudiko'' "well"); they normally follow the verb or adjective they modify.

===Pronouns===
The pronouns begin with ''o-.'' In the singular, they are ''ob'' "I", ''ol'' "[[thou]]", ''om'' "he/it", ''of'' "she", ''os'' (impersonal),<ref>''Os'' is used for cases where the pronoun has no obvious antecedent, such as "I swear it", and perhaps with [[impersonal verb]]s.  ''Om'' is used for abstract things such as ''lit'' "light".</ref> ''on'' "one", ''ok'' "oneself". They are pluralized with ''-s'': ''obs'' "we", ''ols'' "ye", ''oms''  "they". The possessive may be formed with either the genitive ''-a'' or with adjectival ''-ik'': ''oba'' or ''obik'' "my". Prepositions, conjunctions and interjections are also formed from noun roots by appending appropriate suffixes. In later, reformed Volapük, ''om'' was narrowed down to males only, whereas ''on'' got the meaning of 'it' as well as impersonal 'they'.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://xn--volapk-7ya.com/foms-gramatik.html|title=Volapük.com|website=xn--volapk-7ya.com}}</ref>

===Verbs===
The [[verb]] carries a fine degree of detail, with [[morpheme]]s marking [[grammatical tense|tense]], [[grammatical aspect|aspect]], [[grammatical voice|voice]], [[grammatical person|person]], [[grammatical number|number]] and (in the third person) the subject's [[grammatical gender|gender]]. However, many of these categories are optional, and a verb can stand in an unmarked state. A Volapük verb can be conjugated in 1,584 ways (including infinitives and reflexives).<ref>{{Cite book|title = A Dictionary of Made-Up Languages: From Adunaic to Elvish, Zaum to Klingon-- the Anwa (Real) Origins of Invented Lexicons|last = Rogers|first = Stephen D.|publisher = Adams Media Corporation|year = 2011|isbn = 978-1440528170|location = Avon|pages = 238|url = https://www.questia.com/read/121836205/a-dictionary-of-made-up-languages-from-adunaic-to}}</ref>

;Person
For the simple present, the pronouns are suffixed to the verb stem:
:''binob'' I am, ''binol'' thou art,
etc. The present passive takes the prefix ''pa-'':
:''palöfons'' they are loved.

;Tense, aspect, and voice
The three tenses in the [[indicative]], and the three [[perfect (grammar)|perfect]] aspects, each take a characteristic vowel prefix:

{|class="wikitable"
!Tense !!Prefix
|-
!Past
|ä-
|-
!Past perfect
|i-
|-
!Present
|a-
|-
!Present perfect
|e-
|-
!Future
|o-
|-
!Future perfect
|u-
|}

The present-tense prefix is omitted in the active voice, so:
:''binob'' I am, ''äbinol'' you were, ''ebinom'' he has been, ''ibinof'' she had been, ''obinos'' it will be, ''ubinon'' one will have been.

These are seen as being more distant from the present tense the further the vowel is from {{IPA|[a]}} in [[vowel space]], and they can be used with temporal words to indicate distance in the past or future. For example, from ''del'' 'day',
:''adelo'' today, ''odelo'' tomorrow, ''udelo'' the day after tomorrow, ''ädelo'' yesterday, ''edelo'' the day before yesterday, ''idelo'' three days ago.

The [[passive voice]] is formed with ''p-'', and here the ''a'' is required for the present tense:
:''palöfob'' I am loved, ''pälogol'' you were seen, ''pologobs'' we will be seen.

;Infinitive mood
The infinitive is formed with the suffix ''-ön''.  It can be combined with tense/aspect prefixes:
:''Logön'' to see, ''elogön'' to have seen.

;Interrogative mood
Yes–no questions are indicated with the particle ''li'':
:''Pälogom-li'' was he seen?
The hyphen indicates that the syllable ''li'' does not take stress. It occurs before the verb to avoid a sequence of three consonants or a double el:  ''li-pälogol?  li-binoms?''

;Participles and the habitual aspect
Participles, both active and passive, are formed in ''-öl'':
:''Logöl'' seeing, ''elogöl'' having seen, ''ologöl'' being about to see, ''palogöl'' seen (being seen), ''pelogöl'' seen (having been seen), ''pologöl'' about to be seen.
''Binob penöl'' is literally 'I am writing', though ''penob'' is also used.  For "I write" as habitual action, the [[habitual aspect]] is used.  This is formed by adding ''-i-'' after the tense prefix, and here again the present-tense ''a-'' is required. The forms are thus active ''ai-, äi-, ei-, ii-, oi-, ui-,'' passive ''pai-, päi-, pei-, pii-, poi-, pui-.''  All are pronounced as two syllables.
:''Aifidob bodi'' I eat bread (as a daily occurrence), ''äipenob penedis'' I used to write letters.
With temporal words,
:''aidelo'' daily (at the present time)

;The imperative moods
The imperative ''-öd'' follows the person suffix:
:''Gololöd!'' Go! (to one person), ''gololsöd!'' go! (to more than one person)

[[Optative mood|Optative]] ''-ös'' is used for courteous requests, and [[jussive mood|jussive]] ''-öz'' an emphatic command.

;Conditional mood
Conditionals are formed with ''-la'' for the [[protasis]] (''if''-clause) and ''-öv'' for the apodosis (''then''-clause):
: ''If äbinob-la liegik, äbinoböv givik''&nbsp;– if I were rich I would be generous.
: ''Ibinomöv givik, if ibinom-la liegik''&nbsp;– he would have been generous if he had been rich.

Note that the tense changes as well, so that in the first example the past tense is used even though the present tense is intended. Like the question particle, the ''-la'' is written with a hyphen to indicate that it is not stressed in speech.

;Potential mood
A [[potential mood]] is formed with ''-öx'':
:''Pelomöx'' he might pay.

;Reflexive verbs
Reflexive forms are made from the active voice and the pronoun ''ok'':
:''Vatükob'' I wash, ''vatükobok'' (or  ''vatükob obi'') I wash myself.
In the third person, the periphrastic form of ''vatükomok'' (he washes himself) must use the reflexive pronoun, ''vatükom oki'', as ''vatükom omi'' would mean "he washes him (someone else)".

The plural ''-s'' may precede or follow the reflexive, as the speaker chooses:
:''vatükomoks'' or ''vatükomsok'' they wash themselves.
Here there is a meaningful distinction between joining the pronoun to the verb, and inflecting it independently:
:''Löfobsok'' we love ourselves, ''löfobs obis'' we love each other.

;Gerundive
The [[gerundive]] arguments{{clarify|date=February 2014}} are active ''ö-'', passive ''pö-''.