Editing Violence (section)

=== Interpersonal ===
[[File:Schnorr von Carolsfeld Bibel in Bildern 1860 093.png|thumb|right|''Saul attacks David'' (who had been playing music to help Saul feel better), 1860 woodcut by [[Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld]]]]
'''Interpersonal violence''' is divided into two subcategories: Family and [[intimate partner violence]]—that is, violence largely between family members and intimate partners, usually, though not exclusively, taking place in the home. Community violence—violence between individuals who are unrelated, and who may or may not know each other, generally taking place outside the home. The former group includes forms of violence such as [[child abuse]] and [[Corporal punishment of children|child corporal punishment]], intimate partner violence and [[elderly abuse|abuse of the elderly]]. The latter includes youth violence, random acts of violence, [[rape]] or [[sexual assault]] by strangers, and violence in institutional settings such as [[school violence|schools]], [[workplace violence|workplaces]], [[prison violence|prisons]] and nursing homes. When interpersonal violence occurs in families, its psychological consequences can affect parents, children, and their relationship in the short- and long-terms.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Schechter DS, Willheim E, McCaw J, Turner JB, Myers MM, Zeanah CH | year = 2011 | title = The relationship of violent fathers, posttraumatically stressed mothers, and symptomatic children in a preschool-age inner-city pediatrics clinic sample | journal = Journal of Interpersonal Violence | volume = 26 | issue = 18| pages = 3699–3719 | doi=10.1177/0886260511403747 | pmid=22170456| s2cid = 206562093 }}</ref>

==== Violence against children ====
{{See also|Childhood trauma}}

<blockquote>Violence against children includes all forms of violence against people under 18 years old, whether perpetrated by parents or other caregivers, peers, romantic partners, or strangers.<ref name=WHOViolenceagainstchildrenFactSheet>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/violence-against-children|title=Violence against children|author=<!--Not stated-->|date=29 November 2022|website=[[World Health Organization]]|access-date=23 November 2024}}</ref></blockquote>

<blockquote>Exposure to any form of trauma, particularly in childhood, can increase the risk of mental illness and suicide; smoking, alcohol and substance abuse; chronic diseases like heart disease, diabetes and cancer; and social problems such as poverty, crime and violence.<ref name=WHOInjuriesandviolenceFactSheet/></blockquote>

<blockquote>Globally, it is estimated that up to 1 billion children aged 2–17 years, have experienced physical, sexual, or emotional violence or neglect in the past year.<ref name=WHOViolenceagainstchildrenFactSheet/>

Most violence against children involves at least one of six main types of interpersonal violence that tend to occur at different stages in a child’s development.<ref name=WHOViolenceagainstchildrenFactSheet/></blockquote>

===== Maltreatment =====
{{Main|Child abuse}}
<blockquote>Maltreatment (including violent punishment) involves physical, sexual and psychological/emotional violence; and neglect of infants, children and adolescents by parents, caregivers and other authority figures, most often in the home but also in settings such as schools and orphanages.</blockquote> It includes all types of physical and/or emotional ill-treatment, [[child sexual abuse|sexual abuse]], [[neglect]], [[Child neglect|negligence]] and commercial or other [[child exploitation]], which results in actual or potential harm to the child's health, survival, development or dignity in the context of a relationship of responsibility, trust, or power. Exposure to intimate partner violence is also sometimes included as a form of child maltreatment.<ref>World Health Organization (2006). [https://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/publications/violence/child_maltreatment/en/index.html "Preventing child maltreatment: a guide to taking action and generating evidence"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120719072520/http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/publications/violence/child_maltreatment/en/index.html |date=2012-07-19 }} Geneva: WHO and International Society for the Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect.</ref>

Child maltreatment is a global problem with serious lifelong consequences.<ref name=Shechter2009>Schechter DS, Willheim E (2009). The Effects of Violent Experience and Maltreatment on Infants and Young Children. In CH Zeanah (Ed.). ''Handbook of Infant Mental Health'', 3rd Edition. New York: Guilford Press, Inc. pp. 197–214.</ref>{{Pages needed|date=November 2024}} It is complex and difficult to study.<ref name=Shechter2009/>{{Pages needed|date=November 2024}}

There are no reliable global estimates for the prevalence of child maltreatment. Data for many countries, especially low- and middle-income countries, are lacking. Current estimates vary widely depending on the country and the method of research used. Approximately 20% of women and 5–10% of men report being sexually abused as children, while 25–50% of all children report being physically abused.<ref name=WHO2002/><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Stoltenborgh M. |author2=Van IJzendoorn M.H. |author3=Euser E.M. |author4=Bakermans-Kranenburg M.J. | year = 2011 | title = A global perspective on child abuse: Meta-analysis of prevalence around the world | journal = Child Maltreatment | volume = 26 | issue = 2| pages = 79–101 | doi = 10.1177/1077559511403920 |pmid=21511741 |citeseerx=10.1.1.1029.9752 |s2cid=30813632 }}</ref>

Consequences of child maltreatment include impaired lifelong physical and mental health, and social and occupational functioning (e.g. school, job, and relationship difficulties). These can ultimately slow a country's economic and social development.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Gilbert R. |author2=Spatz Widom C. |author3=Browne K. |author4=Fergusson D. |author5=Webb E. |author6=Janson J. | year = 2009 | title = Burden and consequences of child maltreatment in high-income countries | journal = The Lancet | volume = 373 | issue = 9657| pages = 68–81 | doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(08)61706-7 | pmid=19056114|s2cid=1464691 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/ace/index.html|title=Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)|date=21 May 2021}}</ref> Preventing child maltreatment before it starts is possible and requires a multisectoral approach. Effective prevention programmes support parents and teach positive parenting skills. Ongoing care of children and families can reduce the risk of maltreatment reoccurring and can minimize its consequences.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=MacMillan HL, Wathen CN, Barlow J, Fergusson DM, Leventhal JM, Taussig HN | year = 2009 | title = Interventions to prevent child maltreatment and associated impairment | journal = Lancet | volume = 373 | issue = 9659| pages = 250–66 | doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(08)61708-0| pmid = 19056113 | s2cid = 23012537 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Mikton Christopher |author2=Butchart Alexander | year = 2009 | title = Child maltreatment prevention: a systematic review of reviews | journal = Bulletin of the World Health Organization | volume = 87 | issue = 5| pages = 353–61 | doi=10.2471/blt.08.057075|pmid=19551253 | pmc = 2678770 }}</ref>

===== Bullying =====

<blockquote>Bullying (including cyber-bullying) is unwanted aggressive behaviour by another child or group of children who are neither siblings nor in a romantic relationship with the victim. It involves repeated physical, psychological or social harm, and often takes place in schools and other settings where children gather, and online.<ref name=WHOViolenceagainstchildrenFactSheet/></blockquote>

===== Youth violence =====
[[File:Kids off the Block Rocks in grass IMG 4815.JPG|thumb|The [[Kids off the Block]] memorial featuring hundreds of simple stone blocks, one for each child killed by violence in [[Roseland, Chicago]] ]]

Following the World Health Organization, youth are defined as people between the ages of 10 and 29 years.<ref name=WHOViolenceagainstchildrenFactSheet/> Youth violence refers to violence occurring between youths, and includes acts that range from [[bullying]] and physical fighting, through more severe sexual and physical assault to homicide.<ref name="Mercy, J.A. 2002 pp 23">Mercy, J.A., Butchart, A., Farrington, D., Cerda, M. (2002). Youth violence. In Etienne Krug, L.L. Dahlberg, J.A. Mercy, A.B. Zwi & R. Lozano (Eds.), [https://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/world_report/en/ World Report on Violence and Health] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150822172354/http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/world_report/en/ |date=2015-08-22 }} pp 23–56. Geneva, Switzerland: [[World Health Organization]]</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Teen Violence|url=https://medlineplus.gov/teenviolence.html|website=medlineplus.gov|access-date=2020-04-30}}</ref>

Worldwide some 250,000 homicides occur among youth 10–29 years of age each year, which is 41% of the total number of homicides globally each year ("Global Burden of Disease", World Health Organization, 2008). For each young person killed, 20–40 more sustain injuries requiring hospital treatment.<ref name="Mercy, J.A. 2002 pp 23" /> Youth violence has a serious, often lifelong, impact on a person's psychological and social functioning. Youth violence greatly increases the costs of health, welfare and criminal justice services; reduces productivity; decreases the value of property; and generally undermines the fabric of society.{{vague|date=July 2020}}

Prevention programmes shown to be effective or to have promise in reducing youth violence include life skills and social development programmes designed to help children and adolescents manage anger, resolve conflict, and develop the necessary social skills to solve problems; schools-based anti-bullying prevention programmes; and programmes to reduce access to alcohol, illegal drugs and guns.<ref>World Health Organization and Liverpool John Moores University.[http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2009/9789241598507_eng.pdf "Violence prevention: the evidence: overview"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130122193235/http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2009/9789241598507_eng.pdf |date=2013-01-22 }} Geneva, WHO, 2009.</ref> Also, given significant neighbourhood effects on youth violence, interventions involving relocating families to less poor environments have shown promising results.<ref name="Leventhal and Brooks-Gunn">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1111/1467-8721.01216 | volume=12 | title=Children and youth in neighborhood contexts | journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science | pages=27–31 | year=2003 | author=Leventhal Tama| s2cid=145110900 }}</ref> Similarly, urban renewal projects such as [[business improvement district]]s have shown a reduction in youth violence.<ref name="Rand report">{{cite web |url=https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/technical_reports/2009/RAND_TR622.pdf |title=Neighborhood Effects on Crime and Youth Violence: The Role of Business Improvement Districts in Los Angeles |first1=John |last1=MacDonald |first2=Ricky N. |last2=Bluthenthal |first3=Daniela |last3=Golinelli |first4=Aaron |last4=Kofner |first5=Robert J. |last5=Stokes |first6=Amber |last6=Sehgal |first7=Terry |last7=Fain |first8=Leo |last8=Beletsky |date=2009 |work=RAND Infrastructure, Safety, and Environment |access-date=2015-03-17 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141020054800/http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/technical_reports/2009/RAND_TR622.pdf |archive-date=2014-10-20 }}</ref>

Different types of youth on youth violence include witnessing or being involved in physical, emotional and sexual abuse (e.g. physical attacks, bullying, rape), and violent acts like gang shootings and robberies. According to researchers in 2018, "More than half of children and adolescents living in cities have experienced some form of community violence." The violence "can also all take place under one roof, or in a given community or neighborhood and can happen at the same time or at different stages of life."<ref name="The Conversation US Darby Saxbe 2018">{{cite magazine | department=The Conversation US |author1=[[Darby Saxbe]] | title=Living with Neighborhood Violence May Shape Teens' Brains | magazine=Scientific American | date=June 15, 2018 |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/living-with-neighborhood-violence-may-shape-teens-rsquo-brains/ | access-date=November 16, 2018}}</ref> Youth violence has immediate and long term adverse impact whether the individual was the recipient of the violence or a witness to it.<ref>{{cite web |title=Consequences Youth Violence |url=https://vetoviolence.cdc.gov/consequences-youth-violence |website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |access-date=2018-11-16 |archive-date=2019-12-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221131052/https://vetoviolence.cdc.gov/consequences-youth-violence |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Youth violence impacts individuals, their families, and society. Victims can have lifelong injuries which means ongoing doctor and hospital visits, the cost of which quickly add up. Since the victims of youth-on-youth violence may not be able to attend school or work because of their physical and/or mental injuries, it is often up to their family members to take care of them, including paying their daily living expenses and medical bills. Their caretakers may have to give up their jobs or work reduced hours to provide help to the victim of violence. This causes a further burden on society because the victim and maybe even their caretakers have to obtain government assistance to help pay their bills. Recent research has found that [[childhood trauma|psychological trauma during childhood]] can change a child's brain. "Trauma is known to physically affect the brain and the body which causes anxiety, rage, and the ability to concentrate. They can also have problems remembering, trusting, and forming relationships."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Van Der Kolk, M.D. |first1=Bessel |title=The Body Keeps The Score |year=2015 |publisher=Penguin Publishing Group |isbn=978-0143127741 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780143127741/page/464 464] |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780143127741/page/464 |access-date=November 24, 2018 }}</ref> Since the brain becomes used to violence it may stay continually in an alert state (similar to being stuck in the fight or flight mode). "Researchers claim that the youth who are exposed to violence may have emotional, social, and cognitive problems. They may have trouble controlling emotions, paying attention in school, withdraw from friends, or show signs of post-traumatic stress disorder".<ref name="The Conversation US Darby Saxbe 2018" />

It is important for youth exposed to violence to understand how their bodies may react so they can take positive steps to counteract any possible short- and long-term negative effects (e.g., poor concentration, feelings of depression, heightened levels of anxiety). By taking immediate steps to mitigate the effects of the trauma they've experienced, negative repercussions can be reduced or eliminated. As an initial step, the youths need to understand why they may be feeling a certain way and to understand how the violence they have experienced may be causing negative feelings and making them behave differently. Pursuing a greater awareness of their feelings, perceptions, and negative emotions is the first step that should be taken as part of recovering from the trauma they have experienced. "Neuroscience research shows that the only way we can change the way we feel is by becoming aware of our inner experience and learning to befriend what is going on inside ourselves".<ref name="The Body Keeps The Score">{{cite book |last1=Van Der Kolk, M.D. |first1=Bessel |title=The Body Keeps The Score |year= 2015 |publisher=Penguin Publishing Group |isbn=978-0143127741 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780143127741/page/464 464] |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780143127741/page/464 |access-date=December 2, 2018 }}</ref>

Some of the ways to combat the adverse effects of exposure to youth violence would be to try various mindfulness and movement activities, deep breathing exercises and other actions that enable youths to release their pent up emotions. Using these techniques will teach body awareness, reduce anxiety and nervousness, and reduce feelings of anger and annoyance.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Van Der Kolk, M.D. |first1=Bessel |title=The Body Keeps The Score |year= 2015 |publisher=Penguin Publishing Group |isbn=978-0143127741 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780143127741/page/464 464] |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780143127741/page/464 }}</ref>

Youth who have experienced violence benefit from having a close relationship with one or more people.<ref name="The Body Keeps The Score"/> This is important because the trauma victims need to have people who are safe and trustworthy that they can relate and talk to about their horrible experiences. Some youth do not have adult figures at home or someone they can count on for guidance and comfort. Schools in bad neighborhoods where youth violence is prevalent should assign counselors to each student so that they receive regular guidance. In addition to counseling/therapy sessions and programs, it has been recommended that schools offer mentoring programs where students can interact with adults who can be a positive influence on them. Another way is to create more neighborhood programs to ensure that each child has a positive and stable place to go when school in not in session. Many children have benefited from formal organizations now which aim to help mentor and provide a safe environment for the youth especially those living in neighborhoods with higher rates of violence. This includes organizations such as Becoming a Man, CeaseFire Illinois, Chicago Area Project, Little Black Pearl, and Rainbow House".<ref>{{cite web |title=WCL: Stop the Violence Resources for Illinois |url=https://abc7chicago.com/archive/9009544/ |website=ABC 7 Windy City Live |access-date=19 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181119233208/https://abc7chicago.com/archive/9009544/ |archive-date=19 November 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref> These programs are designed to help give the youth a safe place to go, stop the violence from occurring, offering counseling and mentoring to help stop the cycle of violence. If the youth do not have a safe place to go after school hours they will likely get into trouble, receive poor grades, drop out of school and use drugs and alcohol. The gangs look for youth who do not have positive influences in their life and need protection. This is why these programs are so important for the youth to have a safe environment rather than resorting to the streets.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Flores |first1=Rosa |title=Why parents in tough Chicago neighborhoods fear after-school program cuts |url=https://www.cnn.com/2017/05/24/us/chicago-after-school-program-cuts/index.html |website=CNN |date=24 May 2017 |access-date=December 3, 2018}}</ref>

===== Intimate partner violence =====

<blockquote>Intimate partner violence (or domestic violence) involves physical, sexual and emotional violence by an intimate partner or ex-partner. Although males can also be victims, intimate partner violence disproportionately affects females. It commonly occurs against girls within child marriages and early/forced marriages. Among romantically involved but unmarried adolescents it is sometimes called “dating violence”.<ref name=WHOViolenceagainstchildrenFactSheet/></blockquote>

===== Sexual violence =====

<blockquote>Sexual violence includes non-consensual completed or attempted sexual contact and acts of a sexual nature not involving contact (such as voyeurism or sexual harassment); acts of sexual trafficking committed against someone who is unable to consent or refuse; and online exploitation.<ref name=WHOViolenceagainstchildrenFactSheet/></blockquote>

===== Emotional or psychological violence =====

<blockquote>Emotional or psychological violence includes restricting a child’s movements, denigration, ridicule, threats and intimidation, discrimination, rejection and other non-physical forms of hostile treatment.<ref name=WHOViolenceagainstchildrenFactSheet/></blockquote>

==== Intimate partner ====
[[File:JBM-HH roundtable addresses digital stalking, ties to intimate partner violence 150113-A-DZ999-852.jpg|thumb|right|[[Joint Base Myer-Henderson Hall]] (JBM-HH) roundtable addressing digital stalking, ties to intimate partner violence]]
{{Main|Domestic violence|Intimate partner violence}}
Population-level surveys based on reports from victims provide the most accurate estimates of the prevalence of intimate partner violence and sexual violence in non-conflict settings. A study conducted by WHO in 10 mainly developing countries<ref>Garcia-Moreno, C. et al. (2005). [https://www.who.int/gender/violence/who_multicountry_study/en/ "WHO multi-country study on women's health and domestic violence against women"] {{webarchive|url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20110224124426/http://www.who.int/gender/violence/who_multicountry_study/en/ |date=2011-02-24 }} Geneva: WHO</ref> found that, among women aged 15 to 49 years, between 15% (Japan) and 70% (Ethiopia and Peru) of women reported physical and/or sexual violence by an intimate partner. A growing body of research on men and intimate partner violence focuses on men as both perpetrators and victims of violence, as well as on how to involve men and boys in anti-violence work.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gottzén |first1=L.|author-link=Lucas Gottzén|last2=Bjørnholt|first2=M.|last3=Boonzaier|first3=F.|editor-last=Gottzén |editor-first=L.|editor-last2=Bjørnholt|editor-first2=M.|editor-last3=Boonzaier|editor-first3=F.|date=2020 |title=Men, Masculinities and Intimate Partner Violence |chapter= What has masculinity to do with intimate partner violence? |publisher=[[Routledge]]|pages=1–15|isbn= 9781000217995|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bRb8DwAAQBAJ}}</ref>

Intimate partner and sexual violence have serious short- and long-term physical, mental, sexual and reproductive health problems for victims and for their children, and lead to high social and economic costs. These include both fatal and non-fatal injuries, depression and post-traumatic stress disorder, [[unintended pregnancy|unintended pregnancies]], sexually transmitted infections, including HIV.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Stith SM | year = 2004 | title = Intimate partner physical abuse perpetration and victimization risk factors: a meta-analytic review | url =https://krex.k-state.edu/dspace/bitstream/2097/14851/1/STITHAVB2004.pdf | journal = Aggression and Violent Behavior | volume = 10 | issue = 1| pages = 65–98 | doi=10.1016/j.avb.2003.09.001|display-authors=etal| hdl = 2097/14851 | hdl-access = free }}</ref>

Factors associated with the perpetration and experiencing of intimate partner violence are low levels of education, history of violence as a perpetrator, a victim or a witness of parental violence, harmful use of alcohol, attitudes that are accepting of violence as well as marital discord and dissatisfaction. Factors associated only with perpetration of intimate partner violence are having multiple partners, and [[antisocial personality disorder]].

A recent theory named "The Criminal Spin" suggests a mutual flywheel effect between partners that is manifested by an escalation in the violence.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Bensimon M. |author2=Ronel N. | year = 2012 | title = The flywheel effect of intimate partner violence: A victim-perpetrator interactive spin | journal = Aggression and Violent Behavior | volume = 17 | issue = 5| pages = 423–29 | doi=10.1016/j.avb.2012.05.004}}</ref> A violent spin may occur in any other forms of violence, but in Intimate partner violence the added value is the mutual spin, based on the unique situation and characteristics of intimate relationship.

The primary prevention strategy with the best evidence for effectiveness for intimate partner violence is school-based programming for adolescents to prevent violence within dating relationships.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Foshee V.A. | year = 2004 | title = Assessing the long-term effects of the Safe Dates program and a booster in preventing and reducing adolescent dating violence victimization and perpetration | journal = American Journal of Public Health | volume = 94 | issue = 4| pages = 619–24 | doi=10.2105/ajph.94.4.619|display-authors=etal| pmc = 1448308 | pmid=15054015}}</ref> Evidence is emerging for the effectiveness of several other primary prevention strategies—those that: combine microfinance with gender equality training;<ref>{{cite journal | author = Kim J | year = 2009 | title = Assessing the incremental effects of combining economic and health interventions: the IMAGE study in South Africa | journal = Bulletin of the World Health Organization | volume = 87 | issue = 11| pages = 824–32 | doi=10.2471/blt.08.056580|display-authors=etal| pmc = 2770274 | pmid=20072767}}</ref> promote communication and relationship skills within communities; reduce access to, and the harmful use of alcohol; and change cultural gender norms.<ref name="who">WHO(2010).[https://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/publications/violence/9789241564007_eng.pdf "Preventing intimate partner and sexual violence against women: Taking action and generating evidence"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111112035242/http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/publications/violence/9789241564007_eng.pdf |date=2011-11-12 }} World Health Organization: Geneva</ref>

==== Sexual ====
{{Main|Sexual violence}}
[[File:DRC raped women.jpg|thumb|Meeting of victims of [[sexual violence in the Democratic Republic of the Congo]].]]
Sexual violence is any sexual act, attempt to obtain a sexual act, unwanted sexual comments or advances, or acts to traffic, or otherwise directed against a person's sexuality using coercion, by any person regardless of their relationship to the victim, in any setting. It includes rape, defined as the physically forced or otherwise coerced penetration of the vulva or anus with a penis, other body part or object.<ref>Krug et al.,[https://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/world_report/en/ "World report on violence and health"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150822172354/http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/world_report/en/ |date=2015-08-22 }}, World Health Organization, 2002, p. 149.</ref>

Population-level surveys based on reports from victims estimate that between 0.3 and 11.5% of women reported experiencing sexual violence.<ref>Garcia-Moreno, C. et al. (2005).[https://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/violence/24159358X/en/ "WHO multi-country study on women's health and domestic violence against women"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130122193441/http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/violence/24159358X/en/ |date=2013-01-22 }} Geneva: WHO</ref> Sexual violence has serious short- and long-term consequences on physical, mental, sexual and reproductive health for victims and for their children as described in the section on intimate partner violence. If perpetrated during childhood, sexual violence can lead to increased smoking,<ref>Ford, S.E. et al. (2011). "Adverse childhood experiences and smoking status in five states". ''Preventive Medicine'': 43, 3, 188–93.</ref> drug and alcohol misuse, and risky sexual behaviors in later life. It is also associated with perpetration of violence and being a victim of violence.

Many of the risk factors for sexual violence are the same as for [[domestic violence]]. Risk factors specific to sexual violence perpetration include beliefs in family honor and sexual purity, ideologies of male sexual entitlement and weak legal sanctions for sexual violence.

Few interventions to prevent sexual violence have been demonstrated to be effective. School-based programmes to prevent child sexual abuse by teaching children to recognize and avoid potentially sexually abusive situations are run in many parts of the world and appear promising, but require further research. To achieve lasting change, it is important to enact legislation and develop policies that protect women; address discrimination against women and promote gender equality; and help to move the culture away from violence.<ref name="who" />

==== Elder maltreatment ====
{{Main|Elder abuse}}
Elder maltreatment is a single or repeated act, or lack of appropriate action, occurring within any relationship where there is an expectation of trust which causes harm or distress to an older person.

While there is little information regarding the extent of maltreatment in elderly populations, especially in developing countries, it is estimated that 4–6% of elderly people in high-income countries have experienced some form of maltreatment at home<ref>Sethi et al. [http://www.euro.who.int/en/what-we-do/health-topics/Life-stages/healthy-ageing/publications/2011/european-report-on-preventing-elder-maltreatment "WHO European report on preventing elder maltreatment"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130122231547/http://www.euro.who.int/en/what-we-do/health-topics/Life-stages/healthy-ageing/publications/2011/european-report-on-preventing-elder-maltreatment |date=2013-01-22 }}, 2011</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Cooper C, Selwood A, Livingston G | year = 2008 | title = The prevalence of elder abuse and neglect: a systematic review | journal = Age Ageing | volume = 37 | issue = 2| pages = 151–60 | doi=10.1093/ageing/afm194 | pmid=18349012| doi-access = free }}</ref> However, older people are often afraid to report cases of maltreatment to family, friends, or to the authorities. Data on the extent of the problem in institutions such as hospitals, nursing homes and other long-term care facilities are scarce. Elder maltreatment can lead to serious physical injuries and long-term psychological consequences. Elder maltreatment is predicted to increase as many countries are experiencing rapidly ageing populations.

Many strategies have been implemented to prevent elder maltreatment and to take action against it and mitigate its consequences including public and professional awareness campaigns, screening (of potential victims and abusers), caregiver support interventions (e.g. stress management, respite care), adult protective services and self-help groups. Their effectiveness has, however, not so far been well-established.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Ploeg Jenny |author2=Fear Jana |author3=Hutchison Brian |author4=MacMillan Harriet |author5=Bolan Gale | year = 2009 | title = A Systematic Review of Interventions for Elder Abuse | journal = Journal of Elder Abuse & Neglect | volume = 21 | issue = 3| pages = 187–210 | doi=10.1080/08946560902997181|pmid=19827325 |s2cid=42017274 }}</ref><ref>Pillemer K et al. "Interventions to prevent elder mistreatment". In: Doll LS et al., eds. ''Handbook of injury and violence prevention''. New York, Springer, 2008.</ref>