Editing Tongva (section)

=== Colonization and the mission period (1769–1834) ===
{{further|Mission Indians|Spanish missions in California}}[[File:San Gabriel Mission circa 1832.jpg|thumb|Painting of Mission San Gabriel by Ferdinand Deppe (1832) showing a Gabrieleño ''kiiy'' thatched with [[tule]]|241x241px]]

The [[Gaspar de Portolá|Gaspar de Portola]] expedition in 1769 was the first contact by land to reach Tongva territory, marking the beginning of Spanish colonization. [[Franciscans|Franciscan]] padre [[Junípero Serra|Junipero Serra]] accompanied Portola. Within two years of the expedition, Serra had founded four missions,<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Singleton|first=Heather Valdez|date=2004|title=Surviving Urbanization: The Gabrieleno, 1850–1928|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1409498|journal=Wíčazo Ša Review|volume=19|issue=2|pages=49–59|doi=10.1353/wic.2004.0026|jstor=1409498|s2cid=161847670}}</ref> including [[Mission San Gabriel Arcángel|Mission San Gabriel]], founded in 1771 and rebuilt in 1774, and [[Mission San Fernando Rey de España|Mission San Fernando]], founded in 1797. The people enslaved at San Gabriel were referred to as ''Gabrieleños'', while those enslaved at San Fernando were referred to as ''Fernandeños''. Although their language idioms were distinguishable, they did not diverge greatly, and it is possible there were as many as half a dozen dialects rather than the two which the existence of the missions has lent the appearance of being standard.<ref name="Kroeber1925">{{cite book|last=Kroeber|first=Alfred Louis|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015006584174&view=1up&seq=714|title=Handbook of the Indians of California|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office|year=1925|page=620|access-date=June 17, 2019|archive-date=September 14, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220914214050/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015006584174&view=1up&seq=714|url-status=live}}</ref> The demarcation of the Fernandeño and the Gabrieleño territories is mostly conjectural and there is no known point in which the two groups differed markedly in customs. The wider Gabrieleño group occupied what is now [[Los Angeles County, California|Los Angeles County]] south of the [[Sierra Madre Occidental|Sierra Madre]] and half of [[Orange County, California|Orange County]], as well as the islands of [[Santa Catalina Island (California)|Santa Catalina]] and [[San Clemente Island|San Clemente]].<ref name="Kroeber1925" />

The Spanish oversaw the construction of Mission San Gabriel in 1771. The Spanish colonizers used [[slave labor]] from local villages to construct the Missions.<ref name="Fortier2008">{{cite journal|author=Jana Fortier|date=December 2008|title=Native American Consultation And Ethnographic Study, Ventura County, California|url=https://www.academia.edu/418550|location=La Jolla, California|publisher=California Department of Transportation|pages=13–14|access-date=17 June 2019|archive-date=June 5, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220605140252/https://www.academia.edu/418550|url-status=live}}</ref>  Following the destruction of the original mission, probably due to [[El Niño]] flooding, the Spanish ordered the mission relocated five miles north in 1774 and began referring to the Tongva as "Gabrieleno." At the Gabrieleño settlement of Yaanga along the [[Los Angeles River]], missionaries and Indian neophytes, or baptized converts, built the first town of Los Angeles in 1781. It was called ''El Pueblo de Nuestra Señora la Reina de los Ángeles de Porciúncula'' (The Village of Our Lady, the Queen of the Angels of Porziuncola). In 1784, a sister mission, the ''[[Nuestra Señora Reina de los Ángeles Asistencia|Nuestra Señora Reina de los Angeles Asistencia]]'', was founded at Yaanga as well.<ref name="Fortier2008" />

[[File:The Gabrieleno Indians at the Time of the Portola Expedition (Bernice Johnston map, 1962).jpg|thumb|"The Gabrieleno Indians at the Time of the Portola Expedition," mapped by Bernice Johnston of the Southwest Museum (1962)]]
Entire villages were baptized and indoctrinated into the mission system with devastating results.<ref name=":4" /> For example, from 1788 to 1815, natives of the village of Guaspet were baptized at San Gabriel. Proximity to the missions created mass tension for Native Californians, which initiated "forced transformations in all aspects of daily life, including manners of speaking, eating, working, and connecting with the supernatural."<ref name=":4" /> As stated by scholars John Dietler, Heather Gibson, and Benjamin Vargas, "Catholic enterprises of [[proselytization]], acceptance into a mission as a convert, in theory, required abandoning most, if not all, traditional lifeways." Various strategies of control were implemented to retain control, such as the use of violence, segregation by age and gender, and using new converts as instruments of control over others.<ref name=":4" /> For example, Mission San Gabriel's Father Zalvidea punished suspected shamans "with frequent flogging and by chaining traditional religious practitioners together in pairs and sentencing them to hard labor in the sawmill."<ref name=":4" /> A missionary during this period reported that three out of four children died at Mission San Gabriel before reaching the age of 2.<ref name=":17" /> Nearly 6,000 Tongva lie buried in the grounds of the San Gabriel Mission.<ref name=":3" /> [[Carey McWilliams (journalist)|Carey McWilliams]] characterized it as follows: "the Franciscan padres eliminated Indians with the effectiveness of Nazis operating concentration camps...."<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Armbruster-Sandoval|first=Ralph|title=Starving for Justice: Hunger Strikes, Spectacular Speech, and the Struggle for Dignity|publisher=University of Arizona Press|year=2017|isbn=9780816532582|pages=58–59}}</ref>
[[File:Mission San Gabriel Cemetery1.jpg|thumb|247x247px|It is estimated that nearly 6,000 Tongva lie buried on the grounds of Mission San Gabriel from the mission period.]]
There is much evidence of Tongva's resistance to the mission system.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":6"/> Many individuals returned to their village at the time of death. Many converts retained their traditional practices in both domestic and spiritual contexts, despite the attempts by the padres and missionaries to control them. Traditional foods were incorporated into the mission diet and lithic and shell bead production and use persisted. More overt strategies of resistance such as refusal to enter the system, work slowdowns, abortion and infanticide of children resulting from rape, and fugiti were also prevalent. Five major uprisings were recorded at Mission San Gabriel alone.<ref name=":4" /> Two late-eighteenth-century rebellions against the mission system were led by Nicolás José, who was an early convert who had two social identities: "publicly participating in Catholic sacraments at the mission but privately committed to traditional dances, celebrations, and rituals."<ref name=":4" /> He participated in a failed attempt to kill the mission's priests in 1779 and organized eight foothill villages in a revolt in October 1785 with [[Toypurina]], who further organized the villages,<ref name=":03">{{Cite journal|last=Hackel|first=S. W.|date=2003-10-01|title=Sources of Rebellion: Indian Testimony and the Mission San Gabriel Uprising of 1785|journal=Ethnohistory|language=en|volume=50|issue=4|pages=643–669|doi=10.1215/00141801-50-4-643|s2cid=161256567|issn=0014-1801}}</ref> which "demonstrated a previously undocumented level of regional political unification both within and well beyond the mission."<ref name=":4" /> However, divided loyalties among the natives contributed to the failure of the 1785 attempt as well as mission soldiers being alerted of the attempt by converts or neophytes.<ref name=":4" />

[[File:Pictorial and Historical map of Old Los Angeles County 1938 by George W. Kirkman.jpg|thumb|[[George W. Kirkman]]'s 1938 historical map of pre-1860 Los Angeles County shows locations of "Gabrieleño" villages marked with generic "[[Indian teepees]]."]]
Toypurina, José and two other leaders of the rebellion, Chief Tomasajaquichi of Juvit village and a man named Alijivit, from the nearby village of Jajamovit, were put on trial for the 1785 rebellion.<ref name=":03"/> At his trial, José stated that he participated because the ban at the mission on dances and ceremonies instituted by the missionaries, and enforced by the governor of California in 1782, was intolerable as they prevented their mourning ceremonies.<ref name=":4" /> When questioned about the attack, Toypurina is famously quoted as saying that she participated in the instigation because “[she hated] the padres and all of you, for living here on my native soil, for trespassing upon the land of my forefathers and despoiling our tribal domains. …  I came [to the mission] to inspire the dirty cowards to fight, and not to quail at the sight of Spanish sticks that spit fire and death, nor [to] retch at the evil smell of gunsmoke{{snd}}and be done with you white invaders!’<ref name=":03" /> Scholars have debated the accuracy of this quote, from Thomas Workman Temple II's article “Toypurina the Witch and the Indian Uprising at San Gabriel” suggesting it may differ significantly from the testimony recorded by Spanish authorities at the time. According to the soldier who recorded her words, she stated simply that she ‘‘was angry with the Padres and the others of the Mission, because they had come to live and establish themselves in her land.’’<ref name=":03" /> In June 1788, nearly three years later, their sentences arrived from [[Mexico City]]: Nicolás José was banned from San Gabriel and sentenced to six years of hard labor in irons at the most distant penitentiary in the region.<ref name=":03"/> Toypurina was banished from Mission San Gabriel and sent to the most distant Spanish mission.

Resistance to Spanish rule demonstrated how the Spanish Crown's claims to California were both insecure and contested.<ref name=":6" /> By the 1800s, San Gabriel was the richest in the entire colonial mission system, supplying cattle, sheep, goats, hogs, horses, mules, and other supplies for settlers and settlements throughout [[Alta California]].

The mission system has been described by some historians as a form of coerced labor that deeply disrupted Indigenous lifeways and autonomy. Latter-day ethnologist Hugo Reid reported, “Indian children were taken from their parents to be raised behind bars at the mission. They were allowed outside the locked dormitories only to attend to church business and their assigned chores. When they were old enough, boys and girls were put to work in the vast vineyards and orchards owned by the missions. Soldiers watched, ready to hunt down any who tried to escape.” Writing in 1852, Reid said he knew of Tongva who “had an ear lopped off or were branded on the lip for trying to get away.”<ref name="latimes1971" />

In 1810, the "Gabrieleño" labor population at the mission was recorded to be 1,201. It jumped to 1,636 in 1820 and then declined to 1,320 in 1830.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=Martínez|first=Roberta H.|title=Latinos in Pasadena|publisher=Arcadia|year=2009|isbn=9780738569550|pages=15}}</ref> Resistance to this system of forced labor continued into the early 19th century. In 1817, the San Gabriel Mission recorded that there were "473 Indian fugitives."<ref name=":17" /> In 1828, a German immigrant purchased the land on which the village of Yang-Na stood and evicted the entire community with the help of Mexican officials.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book|title=A People's Guide to Los Angeles|publisher=University of California Press|year=2012|isbn=9780520953345|page=71}}</ref>