Editing Tertiary education (section)

== History ==
{{Hiero|House of Life <br> "library" |<hiero>pr-anx-pr</hiero>|align=right|era=egypt}}
[[File:Archiginnasio ora blu Bologna.jpg|thumb|[[Bologna University]] in Italy, established in 1088 A.D., is the [[List of oldest universities in continuous operation|world's oldest university in continuous operation]].]]
[[File:ChiostroPietroMartireNapoli.jpg|thumb|Established in 1224 by [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor]], [[University of Naples Federico II]] in Italy is the world's oldest state-funded university in continuous operation.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Storia d'Italia |date=7 August 1981 |publisher=UTET |isbn=88-02-03568-7 |volume=4 |location=Torino |page=122}}</ref><ref name="Delle Donne"/>]]

The oldest known institutions of higher education are credited to Dynastic Egypt, with Pr-Anx (houses of life) built as libraries and scriptoriums, containing works on law, architecture, mathematics, and medicine, and involved in the training of "swnw" and "swnwt" (male and female [[Doctor (title)|doctors]]); extant [[List of ancient Egyptian papyri|Egyptian papyri]] from the 3rd millennia BC are in several collections.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Gordan |first1=Andrew H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1LbGCVlFtA4C&pg=PA154 |title=The Quick and the Dead: Biomedical Theory in Ancient Egypt |last2=Shwabe |first2=Calvin W. |publisher=[[Brill Academic Publishers]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-90-04-12391-5 |series=Egyptological Memoirs |location=[[Leiden]] |pages=154}}</ref>

In the Greek world, [[Plato's Academy]] ({{Circa|387}} - 86 BC), [[Lyceum (classical)|Aristotle's Lyceum]] ({{Circa|334}} - 86 BC) and other philosophical-mathematical schools became models for other establishments, particularly in [[Alexandria]] of Egypt, under the [[Ptolemies]].

In [[South Asia]], the city of [[Taxila]]{{when|date=December 2020}}, later the great Buddhist monastery of [[Nalanda]] ({{Circa|427}} - 1197 CE), attracted students and professors even from distant regions.<ref>{{cite book | last=Mookerji | first=Radha Kumud | year=1989 | orig-year=1947 | title=Ancient Indian education: Brahmanical and Buddhist | edition=2nd | publication-place=Delhi | publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] | series=History and Culture Series | isbn=978-81-208-0423-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mjFfqpq7HhkC}}</ref>

In [[China]], the [[Han dynasty]] established chairs to teach the [[Four Books and Five Classics|Five Confucean Classics]], in the Grand School, [[Taixue]] ({{CE|{{Circa|3}} - 1905}}), to train cadres for the imperial administration.<ref>{{cite book | last=Balazs | first=Étienne | year=1968 | title=La Bureaucratie céleste: recherches sur l'économie et la société de la Chine traditionnelle | publication-place=Paris | publisher=Gallimard | series=Bibliothèque des sciences humaines | language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{citation | author=Peter Tze Ming Ng | title=Paradigm shift and the state of the field in the study of Christian higher education in China | work=Cahiers d’Extrême-Asie |year=2001 | issue=12 | pages=127–140}}</ref> All these higher-learning institutions became models for other schools within their sphere of cultural influence.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yang |first=Rui |date=2019-09-02 |title=Emulating or integrating? Modern transformations of Chinese higher education |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17516234.2018.1448213 |journal=Journal of Asian Public Policy |language=en |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=294–311 |doi=10.1080/17516234.2018.1448213 |issn=1751-6234}}</ref>

In 425 CE, the Byzantine emperor [[Theodosius II]] innovated as he established the [[Pandidakterion]], with a faculty of 31 professors, to train public servants. In the 7th and 8th centuries, "cathedral schools" were created in Western Europe. Meanwhile, the first Medresahs were founded in the Moslem empire –&nbsp;initially mere primary schools in the premises of major mosques, which gradually evolved toward secondary, later higher education. However high the intellectual level of these schools could be, it would be anachronistic to call them "universities". Their organization and purposes were markedly different from the corporations of students and teachers, independent from both the Church and the State, which established themselves from the 12th century in Western Europe as ''Universitas Studiorum''.{{citation needed|date=December 2020}}

<!-- Istanbul [what university??] has a better claim to being the oldest university, though it suffered name change- see comments in GBR site.-->
According to [[UNESCO]] and ''[[Guinness World Records]]'', the [[University of al-Qarawiyyin]] in [[Fez, Morocco]] is the [[List of oldest universities in continuous operation|oldest existing continually operating]] higher educational institution in the world.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/oldest-university|title=Oldest higher-learning institution, oldest university|website=Guinness World Records|access-date=2021-06-24|archive-date=2014-10-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141007183911/http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/3000/oldest-university|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Medina of Fez|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/170|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=7 April 2016|archive-date=19 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170919192617/http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/170|url-status=live}}</ref> and is occasionally referred to as the oldest university by scholars.<ref>Verger, Jacques: "Patterns", in: Ridder-Symoens, Hilde de (ed.): ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=5Z1VBEbF0HAC&pg=PA35 A History of the University in Europe. Vol. I: Universities in the Middle Ages]'', Cambridge University Press, 2003, {{ISBN|978-0-521-54113-8}}, pp.&nbsp;35–76 (35)</ref> Undoubtedly, there are older institutions of higher education, for example, the [[University of Ez-Zitouna]] in Montfleury, [[Tunis]], was first established in 737. The [[University of Bologna]], Italy, founded in 1088, is the world's oldest university in continuous operation,<ref name="topuniversities">{{cite web |url-status=dead |url=http://www.topuniversities.com/worlduniversityrankings/results/2007/overall_rankings/worlds_oldest_universities/  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090117202932/http://www.topuniversities.com/worlduniversityrankings/results/2007/overall_rankings/worlds_oldest_universities/ |archive-date=17 January 2009 |access-date=6 January 2010 |website=QS Top Universities |title=Times Higher Education - QS World University Rankings 2007 - World's oldest universities }}</ref><ref name=":0a">{{cite book | last=Gaston | first=Paul L. | date=2010 | title=The challenge of Bologna: What United States higher education has to learn from Europe, and why it matters that we learn it | publication-place=Sterling, Virginia | publisher=Stylus Publishing | isbn=978-1-57922-366-3 | oclc=320189904 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wyjnHZ1IIlgC&pg=PA18 | page=18}}</ref><ref name="Hunt Janin 2008">{{cite book | last=Janin | first=Hunt | date=2008 | title=The University in Medieval Life, 1179-1499 | publication-place=Jefferson, NC | publisher=McFarland | isbn=978-0-7864-3462-6 | pages=55f}}</ref><ref name="Ridder-Symoens 1992">de Ridder-Symoens, Hilde: [https://books.google.com/books?id=5Z1VBEbF0HAC ''A History of the University in Europe: Volume 1, Universities in the Middle Ages''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221124110224/https://books.google.com/books?id=5Z1VBEbF0HAC&printsec=frontcover |date=2022-11-24 }}, Cambridge University Press, 1992, {{ISBN|0-521-36105-2}}, pp. 47–55</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Porticoes of Bologna |url=https://whc.unesco.org/fr/listesindicatives/5010/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200815212252/https://whc.unesco.org/fr/listesindicatives/5010/ |archive-date=15 August 2020 |access-date=16 August 2020 |website=UNESCO Centre du patrimoine mondial |language=fr}}</ref> and the first university in the sense of a higher-learning and degree-awarding institute, as the word ''universitas'' was coined at its foundation.<ref name="Ridder-Symoens 1992"/><ref name="topuniversities"/><ref name=":0a" /><ref name="Hunt Janin 2008"/> <!--- The article [[List of oldest universities in continuous operation]] has some excellent source material about how what we think of as a "university" comes from Europe, starting around 1088; institutions of higher learning obviously pre-date that, but aren't universities as we now consider the term - and the article also has information on them.-->

===20th century===
Since [[World War II]], developed and many developing countries have increased the participation of the age group who mostly studies higher education from the elite rate, of up to 15 per cent, to the mass rate of 16 to 50 per cent.<ref>{{cite report | last=Trow | first=Martin |year=1973 | url=http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED091983.pdf | title=Problems in the transition from elite to mass higher education | publisher=Carnegie Commission on Higher Education | publication-place=Berkeley | access-date=1 August 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=Brennan | first=John | year=2002 | chapter=The social role of the contemporary university: contradictions, boundaries and change | pages=22–26 | title=Ten years on: Changing higher education in a changing world | publication-place=Buckingham | publisher=Centre for Higher Education Research and Information, Open University | chapter-url=https://www.open.ac.uk/cheri/documents/ten-years-on.pdf#page=22 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525155320/https://www.open.ac.uk/cheri/documents/ten-years-on.pdf#page=22 | archive-date=25 May 2017 | access-date=9 February 2014}}</ref> In many developed countries, participation in higher education has continued to increase towards universal or, what Trow later called, open access, where over half of the relevant age group participate in higher education.<ref>{{citation | last=Trow | first=Martin | date=2005-08-05 | title=Reflections on the transition from elite to mass to universal access: forms and phases of higher education in modern societies since WWII | url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/96p3s213}} Republished in {{cite book | editor-last=Forest | editor-first=James J. F. | editor-last2=Altbach | editor-first2=Philip G. | date=2006-04-20 <!-- 2006-04-20 --> | title=International Handbook of Higher Education: Part One: Global Themes and Contemporary Challenges | publication-place=Dordrecht, Netherlands | publisher=Springer | isbn=978-1-4020-4011-5 | oclc=65166668 | series=Springer International Handbooks of Education |volume=18 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u3rtCh-EUIIC&pg=PA243 | pages=243–280}}</ref> Higher education is important to national [[economy|economies]], both as an industry, in its own right, and as a source of trained and educated personnel for the rest of the economy. College educated workers have commanded a measurable wage premium and are much less likely to become unemployed than less educated workers.<ref name="Simkovic">{{cite journal |ssrn=1941070 | title=Risk-Based Student Loans| date=5 September 2011| last1=Simkovic| first1=Michael|journal=Washington and Lee Law Review}}</ref><ref name="OECD">{{citation | author=OECD | title=Education at a Glance |year=2011}}</ref>

===21st century===
In recent years, universities have been criticized for permitting or actively encouraging [[grade inflation]].<ref name="gunn" /><ref>{{Citation |last=Baker|first=Simon|date= 28 June 2018|title=Is grade inflation a worldwide trend?|website=The World University Rankings |publisher=Times Higher Education|url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/features/grade-inflation-worldwide-trend |access-date= 23 June 2019|quote=Departments where enrollments were falling felt under pressure to relax their grading practices to make their courses more attractive, leading to an "arms race" in grade inflation.|archive-date=25 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191025154342/https://www.timeshighereducation.com/features/grade-inflation-worldwide-trend |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Widening participation]] can increase the supply of graduates in individual fields of study over the demand for their skills, aggravating [[graduate unemployment]], [[underemployment]], [[overqualification]] and [[educational inflation]].<ref>{{Citation|last1=Coates|first1=Ken|last2=Morrison|first2=Bill|year=2016|title=Dream Factories: Why Universities Won't Solve the Youth Jobs Crisis|place=Toronto|publisher=Dundurn Books|pages=232|url=https://www.dundurn.com/books_/t22117/a9781459733770-dream-factories |isbn=9781459733770|access-date=2021-09-21|archive-date=2021-09-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921081833/https://www.dundurn.com/books_/t22117/a9781459733770-dream-factories |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last1=Brown|first1=Phillip|last2=Lauder|first2=Hugh|last3=Ashton|first3=David|year=2012|title=The Global Auction: The Broken Promises of Education, Jobs, and Incomes|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=208|url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-global-auction-9780199926442?cc=us&lang=en&|isbn=9780199926442|access-date=2020-12-11|archive-date=2021-03-10|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210310171126/https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-global-auction-9780199926442?cc=us&lang=en& |url-status=live}}</ref> Some commentators have suggested that the [[Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education#Higher education|impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education]] is rapidly making certain aspects of the traditional higher education system obsolete.<ref>{{cite book | last=Kaplan | first=Andreas | date=2021-04-06 | title=Higher education at the crossroads of disruption: The university of the 21st century | publisher=Emerald | isbn=978-1-80071-504-2 | doi= 10.1108/9781800715011 | s2cid=233594353 | url=https://books.emeraldinsight.com/page/detail/Higher-Education-at-the-Crossroads-of-Disruption/?k=9781800715042}}</ref> The Israeli-funded [[Institute for the Study of Global Antisemitism and Policy]] and some Israeli media have claimed that [[Qatari involvement in higher education in the United States|involvement and funding by Qatar in higher education in the US]] has resulted in what they regard as growing anti-Semitism on campuses, in particular in connection with [[Gaza war protests]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Follow the Money: Qatar Funding of Higher Education | url=https://isgap.org/follow-the-money/ |access-date= 2023-12-24 |website=Institute for the Study of Global Antisemitism and Policy }}</ref>{{better source needed|date=April 2024 |reason=This is a web page which changes frequently. Cite one of their reports instead.}}<ref>{{cite magazine | last=Shulman | first= Sophie | date=30 October 2023 | title=Tuition of terror: Qatari money flowed into U.S. universities - and now it's fueling violence | magazine=CTech | publication-place=Rishon LeZion, Israel | publisher=Yedioth Ahronoth Group | url=https://www.calcalistech.com/ctechnews/article/jwhsqhrat | access-date=30 April 2024}}</ref>