Editing Southeast Asia (section)

=== Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms era ===
{{Main|Greater India|History of Indian influence on Southeast Asia}}
[[File:Hinduism_Expansion_in_Asia_2023.svg|thumb|Hinduism expansion in Asia, from its heartland in Indian Subcontinent, to the rest of Asia, especially Southeast Asia, started circa 1st century marked with the establishment of early Hindu settlements and polities in Southeast Asia.]]
After the region came under contact with the Indian subcontinent {{circa|400 BCE}}, it began a gradual process of [[Greater India|Indianisation]] where Indian ideas such as religions, cultures, architectures, and political administrations were brought by traders and religious figures and adopted by local rulers. In turn, Indian Brahmins and monks were invited by local rulers to live in their realms and help transforming local polities to become more Indianised, blending Indian and indigenous traditions.<ref name=":32">{{cite book |last=Hall |first=Kenneth R. |title=A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development, 100–1500 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fjsEn3w4TPgC |year=2010 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |isbn=978-0-7425-6762-7 |access-date=15 May 2018 |archive-date=1 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191201044039/https://books.google.com/books?id=fjsEn3w4TPgC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Vanaik 1997"/><ref name="Montgomery 2002"/> [[Sanskrit]] and [[Pali]] became the elite language of the region, which effectively made Southeast Asia part of the [[Indosphere]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mahbubani|first1=Kishore|last2=Sng|first2=Jeffery|title=The ASEAN Miracle: A Catalyst for Peace|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IanWDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA19|year=2017|publisher=NUS Press|isbn=978-981-4722-49-0|page=19|access-date=15 May 2018|archive-date=31 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731130306/https://books.google.com/books?id=IanWDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA19|url-status=live}}</ref> Most of the region had been Indianised during the first centuries, while the Philippines later Indianised {{circa|ninth century}} when [[Kingdom of Tondo]] was established in Luzon.<ref name="Postma">{{cite journal|last=Postma|first=Antoon|date=27 June 2008|title=The Laguna Copper-Plate Inscription: Text and Commentary|url=http://www.philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/download/1033/1018|journal=Philippine Studies|volume=40|issue=2|pages=182–203|access-date=15 May 2018|archive-date=10 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010144524/http://www.philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/download/1033/1018|url-status=live}}</ref> Vietnam, especially its northern part, was never fully Indianised due to the many periods of [[Vietnam under Chinese rule|Chinese domination]] it experienced.<ref>Viet Nam social sciences 2002 Page 42 Ủy ban khoa học xã hội Việt Nam – 2002 "The first period of cultural disruption and transformation: in and around the first millennium CE (that is, the period of Bac thuoc) all of Southeast Asia shifted into strong cultural exchanges with the outside world, on the one hand with Chinese ..."</ref>

The first Indian-influenced polities established in the region were the [[Pyu city-states]] that already existed circa second century BCE, located in inland Myanmar. It served as an overland trading hub between India and China.<ref>{{cite book|last=Malik|first=Preet|title=My Myanmar Years: A Diplomat's Account of India's Relations with the Region|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M7WqCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT28|year=2015|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=978-93-5150-626-3|page=28|access-date=15 May 2018|archive-date=29 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729230331/https://books.google.com/books?id=M7WqCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT28|url-status=live}}</ref> Theravada Buddhism was the predominant religion of these city states, while the presence of other Indian religions such as Mahayana Buddhism and Hinduism were also widespread.<ref name="mat-31-34">Aung-Thwin 2005: 31–34</ref><ref name="mha-15-17">Htin Aung 1967: 15–17</ref> In the first century, the [[Funan]] states centered in [[Mekong Delta]] were established, encompassed modern-day Cambodia, southern Vietnam, Laos, and eastern Thailand. It became the dominant trading power in mainland Southeast Asia for about five centuries, provided passage for Indian and Chinese goods and assumed authority over the flow of commerce through Southeast Asia.<ref name=":22"/> In maritime Southeast Asia, the first recorded Indianised kingdom was [[Salakanagara]], established in western Java circa second century CE. This Hindu kingdom was known by the Greeks as ''Argyre'' (Land of Silver).<ref>{{cite book|last=Iguchi|first=Masatoshi|title=Java Essay: The History and Culture of a Southern Country|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rFvsBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA116|year=2017|publisher=Troubador Publishing Ltd|isbn=978-1-78462-885-7|page=116|access-date=15 May 2018|archive-date=31 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731145852/https://books.google.com/books?id=rFvsBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA116|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:Borobudur, Java, Indonesia, 20220817 1028 8800.jpg|thumb|[[Borobudur]] temple in [[Central Java]], Indonesia]]
By the fifth century CE, trade networking between East and West was concentrated in the maritime route. Foreign traders were starting to use new routes such as [[Strait of Malacca|Malacca]] and [[Sunda Strait]] due to the development of maritime Southeast Asia. This change resulted in the decline of Funan, while new maritime powers such as [[Srivijaya]], [[Tarumanagara]], and [[Mataram Kingdom|Mataram]] emerged. Srivijaya especially became the dominant maritime power for more than 5 centuries, controlling both [[Strait of Malacca]] and [[Sunda Strait]].<ref name=":22" /> This dominance started to decline when Srivijaya were [[Chola invasion of Srivijaya|invaded by Chola Empire]], a dominant maritime power of Indian subcontinent, in 1025.<ref name="C. Majumdar 1961 pp. 338-342">[[R. C. Majumdar]] (1961), "The Overseas Expeditions of King Rājendra Cola", Artibus Asiae 24 (3/4), pp. 338–342, Artibus Asiae Publishers</ref> The invasion reshaped power and trade in the region, resulted in the rise of new regional powers such as the [[Khmer Empire]] and [[Kahuripan]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Mukherjee |first=Rila |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7xeqhnYtrKcC&pg=PA76 |title=Pelagic Passageways: The Northern Bay of Bengal Before Colonialism |publisher=Primus Books |year=2011 |isbn=978-93-80607-20-7 |page=76 |author-link=Rila Mukherjee |access-date=15 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729231954/https://books.google.com/books?id=7xeqhnYtrKcC&pg=PA76 |archive-date=29 July 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Continued commercial contacts with the [[Mid-Imperial China|Chinese Empire]] enabled the Cholas to influence the local cultures. Many of the surviving examples of the [[Hinduism in Southeast Asia|Hindu cultural influence]] found today throughout Southeast Asia are the result of the Chola expeditions.{{NoteTag|The great temple complex at [[Prambanan]] in Indonesia exhibit a number of similarities with the South Indian architecture.<ref>Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. ''The CōĻas'', 1935, p.&nbsp;709.</ref>}}
[[File:Angkor Wat reflejado en un estanque 08.jpg|left|thumb|[[Angkor Wat]] in [[Siem Reap]], [[Cambodia]]]]
As Srivijaya influence in the region declined, The Hindu Khmer Empire experienced a golden age during the 11th to 13th century CE. The empire's capital [[Angkor]] hosts majestic monuments—such as [[Angkor Wat]] and [[Bayon]]. Satellite imaging has revealed that Angkor, during its peak, was the largest pre-industrial urban centre in the world.<ref name="Evans2007">{{cite journal |first1 = Damian |last1 = Evans |display-authors=etal |date=9 April 2009 |title=A comprehensive archaeological map of the world's largest preindustrial settlement complex at Angkor, Cambodia |journal=PNAS|volume=104|issue=36|pages=14277–82|doi=10.1073/pnas.0702525104|pmc=1964867|pmid=17717084|bibcode=2007PNAS..10414277E |doi-access = free }}</ref> The [[Champa]] civilisation was located in what is today central Vietnam, and was a highly Indianised Hindu Kingdom. The [[Vietnamese people|Vietnamese]] launched a massive conquest against the [[Cham (Asia)|Cham people]] during the [[1471 Vietnamese invasion of Champa]], ransacking and burning Champa, slaughtering thousands of Cham people, and forcibly assimilating them into Vietnamese culture.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kiernan|first=Ben|title=Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur |url = https://archive.org/details/bloodan_kie_2007_00_0326 |url-access=registration|year=2007|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-13793-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/bloodan_kie_2007_00_0326/page/110 110]}}</ref>
[[File:Bayon Angkor Relief1.jpg|thumb|[[Khmer Empire|Khmer]] army [[Khmer–Cham wars|waging war]] with [[war elephant]]s against the [[Champa|Cham]] in the 12th century, stone relief at the [[Bayon]]]]
During the 13th century CE, the region experienced [[Mongol invasions and conquests|Mongol invasions]], affected areas such as Vietnamese coast, inland Burma and [[Java]]. In 1258, 1285 and 1287, the Mongols tried to invade [[Đại Việt]] and [[Champa]].<ref>{{cite book|title=A history of Vietnam: from Hong Bang to Tu Duc|last=Chapuis|first=Oscar|publisher=Greenwood Press|year=1995|isbn=978-0-313-29622-2|page=85}}</ref> The invasions were unsuccessful, yet both Dai Viet and Champa agreed to become tributary states to [[Yuan dynasty]] to avoid further conflicts.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bulliet|first1=Richard|last2=Crossley|first2=Pamela|last3=Headrick|first3=Daniel|last4=Hirsch|first4=Steven|last5=Johnson|first5=Lyman|title=The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h8CiAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA336|year=2014|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-1-285-96570-3|page=336|access-date=15 May 2018|archive-date=31 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731142610/https://books.google.com/books?id=h8CiAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA336|url-status=live}}</ref> The Mongols also invaded [[Pagan Kingdom]] in Burma from 1277 to 1287, resulted in fragmentation of the Kingdom and rise of smaller [[Shan States]] ruled by local chieftains nominally submitted to Yuan dynasty.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/gazetteerupperb01hardgoog|title=Gazetteer of Upper Burma and the Shan States|last=Hardiman|first=John Percy|date=1900|publisher=superintendent, Government printing, Burma|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Bernice Koehler Johnson|title=The Shan: Refugees Without a Camp, an English Teacher in Thailand and Burma|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mLDRmhtWouQC&pg=PA11|year=2009|publisher=Trinity Matrix Publishing|isbn=978-0-9817833-0-7|page=11|access-date=15 May 2018|archive-date=29 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729195828/https://books.google.com/books?id=mLDRmhtWouQC&pg=PA11|url-status=live}}</ref> However, in 1297, a new local power emerged. [[Myinsaing Kingdom]] became the real ruler of Central Burma and challenged the Mongol rule. This resulted in the second Mongol invasion of Burma in 1300, which was repulsed by Myinsaing.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kohn|first=George Childs|title=Dictionary of Wars|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1TLjAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT446|year=2013|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-135-95501-4|page=446|access-date=15 May 2018|archive-date=29 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729192630/https://books.google.com/books?id=1TLjAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT446|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Whiting |first=Marvin C. |title=Imperial Chinese Military History: 8000 BC-1912 AD |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JJQiAz3qTCgC&pg=PA408 |year=2002 |publisher=iUniverse |isbn=978-0-595-22134-9 |page=408 |access-date=15 May 2018 |archive-date=29 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729192217/https://books.google.com/books?id=JJQiAz3qTCgC&pg=PA408 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Mongols would later in 1303 withdrawn from Burma.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hardiman |first=John Percy |url=https://archive.org/details/gazetteerupperb01hardgoog |title=Gazetteer of Upper Burma and the Shan States |publisher=superintendent, Government printing, Burma |year=1900}}</ref> In 1292, The Mongols sent envoys to [[Singhasari]] Kingdom in Java to ask for submission to Mongol rule. Singhasari rejected the proposal and injured the envoys, enraged the Mongols and made them sent a large invasion fleet to Java. Unbeknownst to them, Singhasari collapsed in 1293 due to a revolt by [[Kediri (historical kingdom)|Kadiri]], one of its vassals. When the Mongols arrived in Java, a local prince named [[Raden Wijaya]] offered his service to assist the Mongols in punishing Kadiri. After Kadiri was defeated, Wijaya turned on his Mongol allies, ambushed their invasion fleet and forced them to immediately leave Java.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yjNWDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT60 |title=Southeast Asia: Past and Present |last=SarDesai |first=D. R. |year=2012 |publisher=Avalon Publishing |isbn=978-0-8133-4838-4 |access-date=15 May 2018 |archive-date=29 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729194508/https://books.google.com/books?id=yjNWDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT60 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=74seAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA214 |title=History of Asia |last=Rao |first=B. V. |publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. |isbn=978-81-207-9223-4 |access-date=15 May 2018 |archive-date=31 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731153416/https://books.google.com/books?id=74seAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA214 |url-status=live }}</ref>

After the departure of the Mongols, Wijaya established the [[Majapahit Empire]] in eastern Java in 1293. Majapahit would soon grow into a regional power. Its greatest ruler was [[Hayam Wuruk]], whose reign from 1350 to 1389 marked the empire's peak when other kingdoms in the southern [[Malay Peninsula]], [[Borneo]], [[Sumatra]], and [[Bali]] came under its influence. Various sources such as the Nagarakertagama also mention that its influence spanned over parts of [[Sulawesi]], [[Maluku Islands|Maluku]], and some areas of [[western New Guinea]] and southern [[Philippines]], making it one of the largest empire to ever exist in Southeast Asian history.<ref name="miksic2">{{cite book|author1-link=John N. Miksic |title = Ancient History |series = Indonesian Heritage Series |volume = 1 |first = John |last = Miksic |publisher = Archipelago Press / Editions Didier Millet |year=1999 |isbn=978-981-3018-26-6 }}</ref>{{rp|page=107}} By the 15th century CE however, Majapahit's influence began to wane due to many war of successions it experienced and the rise of new Islamic states such as [[Samudera Pasai Sultanate|Samudera Pasai]] and [[Malacca Sultanate]] around the strategic [[Strait of Malacca]]. Majapahit then collapsed around 1500. It was the last major Hindu kingdom and the last regional power in the region before the arrival of the Europeans.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jtpkAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA197|title=The Private Sector's Role in Poverty Reduction in Asia|last=Hipsher|first=Scott|year=2013|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-85709-449-0|access-date=15 May 2018|archive-date=29 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729203939/https://books.google.com/books?id=jtpkAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA197|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5Qf39DpguysC&pg=PA28 |title=Sultans, Shamans, and Saints: Islam and Muslims in Southeast Asia |last=Federspiel |first=Howard M. |year=2007 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-3052-6 |access-date=15 May 2018 |archive-date=29 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729203803/https://books.google.com/books?id=5Qf39DpguysC&pg=PA28 |url-status=live }}</ref>