Editing Social capital (section)

=== Norms of trust and reciprocity (Sander, Putnam, Coleman) ===
Thomas Sander<ref>{{Cite web|title=Tom Sander|url=http://www.hks.harvard.edu/programs/saguaro/about/who-we-are/tom-sander |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208100744/http://www.hks.harvard.edu/programs/saguaro/about/who-we-are/tom-sander |archive-date=2015-12-08 |access-date=2015-12-02|website=harvard Kennedy School}}</ref> defines it as "the collective [[Value theory|value]] of all [[social network]]s (who people know), and the inclinations that arise from these networks to do things for each other ([[Norm (social)|norms]] of [[Reciprocity (social psychology)|reciprocity]])."<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|last=Sander|first=Thomas|title=About Social Capital|url=http://www.hks.harvard.edu/programs/saguaro/about-social-capital|access-date=2 December 2015|website=Saguaro Seminar: Civic Engagement in America|publisher=John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University|archive-date=8 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208152700/http://www.hks.harvard.edu/programs/saguaro/about-social-capital|url-status=live}}</ref> Social capital, in this view, emphasizes "specific [[Goodness and value theory|benefits]] that flow from the [[Trust (social sciences)|trust]], [[Reciprocity (social psychology)|reciprocity]], [[information]], and [[cooperation]] associated with social networks." It "creates value for the people who are connected, and for [[Free rider problem|bystanders]] as well."<ref name=":6" /> Meanwhile, negative norms of reciprocity serve as disincentives for detrimental and violent behaviors.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Chen|first1=Ya-Ru|last2=Chen|first2=Xiao-Ping|last3=Portnoy|first3=Rebecca|date=January 2009|title=To whom do positive norm and negative norm of reciprocity apply? Effects of inequitable offer, relationship, and relational-self orientation|journal=Journal of Experimental Social Psychology|volume=45|issue=1|pages=24–34|doi=10.1016/j.jesp.2008.07.024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=A.|first1=Jeff|title=What is Social Capital?|url=http://www.reputationtrojan.com/what-is-social-capital-network-value/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018173124/http://www.reputationtrojan.com/what-is-social-capital-network-value/|archive-date=18 October 2017|access-date=6 February 2016|publisher=Reputation Trojan}}</ref>

[[James Samuel Coleman|James Coleman]] defined social capital functionally as "a variety of entities with two elements in common: they all consist of some aspect of social structure, and they facilitate certain actions of actors...within the structure"<ref name="auto">{{Cite journal|last=Coleman|first=James|date=1988|title=Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capital|journal=American Journal of Sociology|volume=94|issue=1 |pages=95–120|citeseerx=10.1.1.208.1462|doi=10.1086/228943|jstor=2780243|s2cid=51859022}}</ref>{{snd}}that is, social capital is anything that facilitates individual or [[collective action]], generated by networks of relationships, reciprocity, trust, and social norms.<ref name="Portes 1998" /> In Coleman's conception, social capital is a neutral resource that facilitates any manner of action, but whether society is better off as a result depends entirely on the individual uses to which it is put.<ref name="Edwards 1997">Foley, M. W. & Edwards, B. (1997). ''Escape from politics?'' {{ISBN?}}{{page?|date=November 2022}}</ref>

According to [[Robert D. Putnam]], ''social capital'' refers to "connections among individuals – social networks and the norms of [[Reciprocity (social psychology)|reciprocity]] and [[Trust (social science)|trustworthiness]] that arise from them."<ref name="Putnam2001">{{cite book|author=Robert D. Putnam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rd2ibodep7UC&pg=PA19|title=Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community|year=2001|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-0743203043|page=19}}</ref> In the view of Putnam and his followers, social capital is a key component to building and maintaining [[democracy]]. Putnam says that social capital is declining in the United States. This is seen in lower levels of trust in government and lower levels of civic participation. Putnam also suggests that a root cause of the decline in social capital is [[Women in the workforce|women's entry into the workforce]], which could correlate with time restraints that inhibit civic organizational involvement like [[Parent–teacher association|parent-teacher associations]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Putnam|first1=R. D.|year=1995|title=Bowling alone: America's declining social capital|url=http://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/RGID/article/view/60809|journal=Journal of Democracy|volume=6|issue=1|pages=65–78|doi=10.1353/jod.1995.0002|s2cid=154350113|access-date=18 September 2018|archive-date=28 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181028074116/http://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/RGID/article/view/60809|url-status=live}}</ref> Technological transformation of [[leisure]] (e.g., television) is another cause of declining social capital, as stated by Putnam. This offered a reference point from which several studies assessed social capital measurements by how media is engaged strategically to build social capital.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Williams|first1=D|year=2006|title=On and off the 'Net: Scales for Social Capital in an Online Era|journal=Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication|volume=11|issue=2|pages=593–628|doi=10.1111/j.1083-6101.2006.00029.x|doi-access=free}}</ref>