Editing Shapur II (section)

=== Second war against the Romans and invasion of Armenia ===
[[File:Julian's campaign-en.svg|thumb|left|upright=1.5|Map showing Julian's journey from [[Constantinople]] to [[Antioch]] (in 362) and his Persian expedition (in 363), ending with his death near [[Samarra]]]]

In 356, Shapur rejected a peace overture by Constantius, replying that Rome should return Armenia and other territories lost by Persia in the Treaty of Nisibis.{{Sfn|Patterson|2017|p=191}} In 359, Shapur II invaded southern Armenia and besieged the fortress of [[Amida (Mesopotamia)|Amida]] (now [[Diyarbakır]], Turkey). He was joined by King Grumbates's forces{{Sfn|Daryaee|2014|p=18}} and other allies.{{Sfn|Rezakhani|2017|pp=90–91}}{{Efn|These were the Caucasian Albanians, Gelani, Mardians and Segestani.{{Sfn|Rezakhani|2017|pp=90-91}}}} Amida surrendered after a seventy-three-day siege.{{Sfn|Meyer|1911}} The city was plundered and its inhabitants were deported to Khuzistan.{{Sfn|Daryaee|2014|p=18}} The delay forced Shapur to halt operations for the winter. Early the following spring he continued his operations against the Roman fortresses, capturing [[Singara]] and [[Shapur II's siege of Bezabde|Bezabde]] ([[Cizre]]?), again at a heavy cost. In the next year [[Constantius II]] launched a counterattack, having spent the winter making massive preparations in [[Constantinople]]; Shapur, who had meanwhile lost the aid of his Asianic allies, avoided battle, but left strong garrisons in all the fortresses which he had captured. Constantius laid siege to Bezabde, but proved incapable of taking it, and retired on the approach of winter to [[Antioch]], where he died soon after.
Constantius was succeeded by his cousin [[Julian (emperor)|Julian]] (361–363), who came to the throne determined to avenge the recent Roman reverses in the east. Though Shapur attempted an honorable reconciliation, warned of the capabilities which Julian had displayed in wars against the [[Alemanni]] in [[Gaul]], the emperor dismissed negotiation.{{Citation needed|date=February 2025}}

[[File:Taq-e Bostan - High-relief of Ardeshir II investiture.jpg|thumb|Sasanian relief of the investiture of [[Ardashir II]] showing [[Mithra]], Shapur II, and [[Ahura Mazda]] above a defeated Julian, lying prostrate]]

In 363 Julian, at the head of a strong army, advanced to Shapur's capital city of [[Ctesiphon]] and defeated a presumably larger Sasanian force at the [[Battle of Ctesiphon (363)|Battle of Ctesiphon]]; however, he was unable to take the fortified city, or engage with the main Persian army under Shapur II that was approaching. Julian was killed by the enemy in a skirmish during his retreat back to Roman territory. His successor [[Jovian (emperor)|Jovian]] (363–364) made an ignominious peace in which the districts beyond the [[Tigris]] which had been acquired in 298 were given to the Persians along with Nisibis and Singara, and the Romans promised to interfere no more in Armenia.{{sfn|Daryaee|2009}} The great success is represented in the rock sculptures near the town [[Bishapur]] in Pars (Stolze, ''Persepolis'', p. 141); under the hooves of the king's horse lies the body of an enemy, probably Julian, and a supplicant Roman, the Emperor Jovian, asks for peace.

According to the peace treaty between Shapur and Jovian, [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] and Armenia were to be ceded to the Sasanians, and the Romans forbidden from further involvement in the affairs of Armenia.{{sfn|Daryaee|2014|p=19}} The Armenian King [[Arshak II]], who had joined Julian's campaign, was lured to Persia and imprisoned in the [[Castle of Oblivion]]{{Sfn|Garsoïan|1997|p=90}} (Armenian: {{lang|xcl-Latn|berd An(y)ush}}) in [[Khuzistan (Sasanian province)|Khuzistan]].{{Sfn|Garsoïan|1989|p=443}}{{Efn|Supposedly, Arshak then committed suicide during a visit by his eunuch Drastamat,{{sfn|Daryaee|2014|p=19}} although the Roman historian [[Ammianus Marcellinus]] (4th century) reports that Arshak was blinded and executed.{{Sfn|Garsoïan|1989|p=443}}}} Shapur destroyed many towns in Armenia and deported their inhabitants to Persia.{{Sfn|Garsoïan|1997|p=90}} He persecuted the local Christians, erected [[fire temple]]s and forced conversion to [[Zoroastrianism]].{{Sfn|Lenski|2002|p=172}} The Persians were assisted in Armenia by the magnates [[Meruzhan Artsruni]] and Vahan Mamikonian, who were made governors of the country and one of whom was given Shapur's own sister in marriage.{{Sfn|Garsoïan|1997|p=90}}{{Efn|Shapur's sister, who is called Ormizdukht in the old Armenian histories, was given to Vahan according to the ''[[Buzandaran Patmutʻiwnkʻ]]'' and to Meruzhan according to [[Movses Khorenatsi]].{{Sfn|Garsoïan|1989|p=397}}}} However, the Armenian nobles resisted him successfully, secretly supported by the Romans, who sent King [[Pap of Armenia|Pap]], the son of Arshak II, into Armenia. Shapur personally invaded Armenia in response to Pap's return, although Pap was restored to the Armenian throne again with the help of a Roman army in approximately spring 370.{{Sfn|Lenski|2002|p=173}}{{Sfn|Drijvers|2016|p=580}} Persian forces were defeated by a joint Roman-Armenian army in 371,{{Sfn|Lenski|2002|p=175}} and an army led by Shapur himself was defeated in another battle on the eastern border of Armenia.{{Sfn|Garsoïan|1997|pp=90–91}} Eventually, Pap was suspected of colluding with the Persians and was assassinated in 375 by the order of the Roman emperor [[Valens]].{{Sfn|Lenski|2002|p=|pp=175–181}} Shapur and Valens negotiated inconclusively over the status of Armenia until 377, and Valens's defeat and death at the [[Battle of Adrianople]] in 378 ended Roman presence in Armenia. Armenia was left in peace for the time being. The country was later partitioned between Rome and Persia in 387, under Shapur's son [[Shapur III]].{{Sfn|Drijvers|2016|pp=582–583}}

In Georgia, then known as [[Kingdom of Iberia|Iberia]], where the Sasanians were also given control, Shapur II installed [[Aspacures II of Iberia]] in the east; however, in western Georgia, Valens also succeeded in setting up his own king, [[Sauromaces II of Iberia]].{{sfn|Daryaee|2014|p=19}}

Shapur II had conducted great hosts of captives from the Roman territory into his dominions, most of whom were settled in [[Elam]]. Here he rebuilt [[Susa]]—after having killed the city's rebellious inhabitants.{{Citation needed|date=February 2025}}