Editing Shamash (section)

==Associations with other deities==
===Family===
The sun god was traditionally viewed as a son of the moon god in Mesopotamian religion, both in Sumerian and Akkadian texts.{{sfn|Krebernik|2011|p=599}} They are already attested as father and son in the [[Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)|Early Dynastic]] god list from [[Shuruppak|Fara]].{{sfn|Krebernik|2011|p=606}} The relation between them could be illustrated by matching epithets, for example in the god list ''[[An = Anum]]'' Utu is the "small boat of heaven" (Mabanda-anna), while his father [[Nanna (Sumerian deity)|Nanna]] - the "great boat of heaven" (Magula-anna).{{sfn|Krebernik|2011|p=599}} [[Ningal]] was regarded as Utu's mother,{{sfn|Beckman|2012|p=132}}{{sfn|Asher-Greve|Westenholz|2013|p=49}} and [[Inanna]] as his sister.{{sfn|Krebernik|2008|p=355}} ''[[Hymn to the Queen of Nippur]]'' refers to them as twins.{{sfn|Asher-Greve|Westenholz|2013|p=98}} Due to her identification with Ishtar (Inanna) the [[Hurrian religion|Hurrian]] and [[Elam]]ite goddess [[Pinikir]] is referred to as a twin sister of Shamash and daughter of Sin (Nanna) and Ningal in a text written in [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] but found in a corpus of [[Hurrian language|Hurro]]-[[Hittite language|Hittite]] rituals.{{sfn|Beckman|1999|p=27}} In a single ''[[Maqlû]]'' incantation, the rainbow goddess [[Manzat (goddess)|Manzat]] is referred to as Shamash's sister and as a daughter of Sin and Ningal.{{sfn|Abusch|2015|p=11}}

The sun god's wife was invariably the goddess of dawn and light, usually known under the name [[Aya (goddess)|Aya]], though the forms Ninkar, Sudaĝ, Sherida and Sudgan are also well attested.{{sfn|Krebernik|2011|p=602}} Typically they were worshiped together, though sometimes Shamash shared his temples with other gods instead.{{sfn|Krebernik|2011|p=605}} Utu/Shamash and Aya are the single most common divine couple in cylinder seal inscriptions from [[Sippar]], with only the number of dedications to [[Ishkur]] and [[Shala]] being comparably high.{{sfn|Asher-Greve|Westenholz|2013|p=257}} Aya was believed to intercede with her husband on behalf of worshipers,{{sfn|Asher-Greve|Westenholz|2013|p=119}} which is a function also well attested for other divine spouses, such as [[Ninmug]] and Shala.{{sfn|Asher-Greve|Westenholz|2013|p=273}} It has also been pointed out that in the case of Inanna, her sukkal [[Ninshubur]] fulfilled a similar role.{{sfn|Asher-Greve|Westenholz|2013|p=273}} In legal texts from Sippar, the sun god and his wife commonly appear as divine witnesses.{{sfn|Asher-Greve|Westenholz|2013|p=260}} The only other divine couple attested in this role in this city are [[Mamu (deity)|Mamu]] and [[Bunene]].{{sfn|Asher-Greve|Westenholz|2013|p=260}} Buduhudug, a mythical mountain where the sun was believed to set, was regarded as "the entrance of Shamash to Aya" (''nēreb <sup>d</sup>Šamaš <ana> <sup>d</sup>Aya''), the place where they were able to reunite each day after he finished his journey through the sky.{{sfn|George|2003|p=863}}{{sfn|Woods|2009|p=187}}

The deities counted among Utu's children include the dream goddess Mamu{{sfn|Asher-Greve|Westenholz|2013|p=262}} (as well as two other, male, dream deities, [[Sisig (mythology)|Sisig]] and [[Zaqar]]),{{sfn|Krebernik|2011|p=602}} [[Šumugan]], a god associated with animals,{{sfn|Lambert|2013|p=517}} Niggina ([[Kittum]]), the deified concept of [[truth]], according to Jacob Klein regarded as his principal daughter,{{sfn|Klein|1998|pp=311-312}} and [[Ishum]].{{sfn|Asher-Greve|Westenholz|2013|p=77}}

In myths both about himself{{sfn|Katz|2017|p=201}} and about [[Lugalbanda]], the legendary king [[Enmerkar]] was referred to as a son of Utu.{{sfn|Gadotti|2014|p=250}} However, in the ''[[Sumerian King List]]'' Utu is instead his grandfather, and his father is a human ruler, [[Meshkiangasher|Meškiağašer]].{{sfn|Katz|2017|p=201}} Unlike other legendary kings of Uruk, namely Lugalbanda and [[Gilgamesh]], Enmerkar was not deified, despite the existence of a tradition attributing divine ancestry to him.{{sfn|Katz|2017|p=207}} In various sources, Utu seems to serve as a special protector to several of Uruk's other kings.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=184}}

<sup>d</sup>AMAR.UD, an early writing of [[Marduk]]'s name, can be translated as "bull calf of Utu," as long as it is assumed that the sign UD should be understood as a writing of Utu's name without the [[dingir|divine determinative]] (a [[cuneiform]] sign preceding names of deities), which is also attested in some [[theophoric names]] from the Early Dynastic period.{{sfn|Lambert|2013|p=163}} However, no evidence exists that Marduk was ever viewed as a member of the family of any sun deity in Sippar, [[Larsa]] or any other location in Mesopotamia, which lead [[Wilfred G. Lambert]] to suggest this etymology is not plausible on theological grounds.{{sfn|Lambert|2013|p=163}}

===Court===
Multiple deities who could be regarded as the [[sukkal]] (attendant deity) of Utu are known, and more than one could appear in this role at a time.{{sfn|Krebernik|2011|p=603}} [[Bunene]], also known under the name Papnunna,{{sfn|Wiggermann|1987|p=9}} was considered his chariot driver.{{sfn|Harris|1975|p=148}} Frans Wiggermann notes that his name and character (as well as these of other well attested sukkals of major city gods:  [[Ninshubur]], [[Alammush]], [[Nuska]] and [[Isimud]]) do not appear to show direct connection with these of his master, which means that he cannot be considered the personification of the effect of the corresponding major deity's actions (unlike such deities as Nabium, deified flame and sukkal of the fire god [[Girra]] or Nimgir, deified lightning and sukkal of the weather god [[Ishkur]]) or a divine personifications of specific commands (unlike such deities as Eturammi, "do not slacken," the sukkal of [[Birtum]]).{{sfn|Wiggermann|1987|p=22}} Ninpirig was referred to as Utu's sukkalmah ("great sukkal").{{sfn|Wiggermann|1987|p=16}} It has been proposed that his name might hint at a connection with light.{{sfn|Wiggermann|1987|p=22}} He is attested in multiple theophoric names, chiefly from Sippar.{{sfn|Cavigneaux|Krebernik|1998|p=481}} Some researchers, including Antoine Cavigneaux and Manfred Krebernik, consider the reading of the second element of his name to be uncertain due to variable orthography, and transcribe it as Nin-PIRIG.{{sfn|Cavigneaux|Krebernik|1998|pp=481-482}} The pair Nigzida and Nigsisa, whose names  mean "law" and "order," respectively,{{sfn|Wiggermann|1987|p=23}} are identified as the "vizier of the left" and "vizier of the right" in the god list ''An = Anum''.{{sfn|Krebernik|2011|p=603}} Nigsisa alone is mentioned by [[Ninsun]] as Shamash's sukkal in the ''[[Epic of Gilgamesh]]''.{{sfn|George|2003|p=461}} Nigzida could be equated with Niggina, another goddess regarded as the sun god's sukkal, though the latter deity's role varies between that of a servant and oldest daughter in known copies of the god list ''An = Anum''.{{sfn|Klein|1998|p=311}} Her Akkadian counterpart was Kittum, whose name has the same meaning, "truth."{{sfn|Klein|1998|p=311}} In ''An = Anum'' Kittum is instead male and a brother of Niggina.{{sfn|Klein|1998|p=311}} She had a sukkal of her own, [[Iqbi-damiq]].{{sfn|Klein|1998|p=311}}{{sfn|Krebernik|2011|p=602}}

None of Utu's sukkals known from other sources are present in documents from the archive of the [[First Sealand dynasty]].{{sfn|Boivin|2018|p=220}} Odette Boivin proposes that in local tradition, this role was instead fulfilled by the deities Lugal-namtarra and <sup>d</sup>SUKKAL, who frequently appear alongside the sun god, and that the former functioned as his sukkal during his nightly journey through the underworld, while the latter fulfilled the same role during the day.{{sfn|Boivin|2018|pp=220-221}} Lugal-namtarra is otherwise sparsely attested and might be analogous to [[Namtar]].{{sfn|Boivin|2018|p=220}} Boivin speculates that <sup>d</sup>SUKKAL developed from the male version of Ninshubur, and assumes it is plausible a connection between the latter and the sun god developed during the reign of [[Rim-Sîn I]], a king of Larsa well known for his devotion to Ninshubur.{{sfn|Boivin|2018|p=220}}

Many deities belonging to the court of Utu were regarded as divine judges.{{sfn|Krebernik|2008|p=354}} They could be grouped together, and collective labels such as "Eleven Standing Gods of Ebabbar" or "Six Judges of Shamash" are known from various sources.{{sfn|Krebernik|2008|p=358}} One well known example of such a deity is [[Ishmekarab]],{{sfn|Krebernik|2008|p=358}} who could also be associated with [[Inshushinak]] and [[Lagamal]].{{sfn|Lambert|1980|p=196}}

[[Kusarikku]] (bull-men, or, as argued by Frans Wiggermann, [[bison]]-men{{sfn|Wiggermann|1992|p=177}}) were frequently associated with Utu, and especially through the second millennium BCE were commonly depicted as members of his court, for example as standard bearers.{{sfn|Woods|2004|p=55}} Similarly, the human-headed bull (''alima'') could accompany the solar disc in art,{{sfn|Wiggermann|1992|p=160}} and a reference to its head serving as an emblem of Utu is known.{{sfn|Wiggermann|1992|p=176}} It is possible that the association between bison-like mythical beings and the sun god was based on their shared connection to eastern mountains.{{sfn|Wiggermann|1992|p=152}} A further type of apotropaic creature associated with Utu was the [[scorpion man|girtablullu]] ("scorpion man").{{sfn|Wiggermann|1992|p=180}} In the Standard Babylonian ''Epic of Gilgamesh'', a scorpion man and a scorpion woman guard the mountain of sunrise.{{sfn|George|2003|pp=492-493}}

According to Christopher Woods, it is possible that in a single case the minor serpentine god [[Nirah]] is attested as a member of the court of Shamash.{{sfn|Woods|2004|p=67}} He proposes that it was a result of the well attested association between the sun god and [[Ishtaran]], whose servant Nirah usually was.{{sfn|Woods|2004|pp=72-74}}

===Foreign deities===
The name of the [[Ebla]]ite sun deity was represented with the [[logogram]] <sup>d</sup>UTU.{{sfn|Krebernik|2011|p=606}} Manfred Krebernik assumes that it should be read as Shamash, that the deity was male, and that the goddess Ninkar also attested in texts from Ebla was his spouse.{{sfn|Krebernik|2011|p=606}} Alfonso Archi instead concludes that the deity was primarily female based on lexical evidence, but points out that the Eblaites were definitely aware of the male eastern sun god, and seemingly adopted him into their pantheon as a secondary [[Hypostasis (philosophy and religion)|hypostasis]].{{sfn|Archi|2019|p=43}} Occasionally the sun deity's gender had to be indicated directly, and both <sup>d</sup>UTU-''munus'' (female) and <sup>d</sup>UTU-''nita'' (male) are attested.{{sfn|Archi|2019|p=43}} [[Joan Goodnick Westenholz]] proposed that Ninkar in Eblaite texts should be interpreted as [[Ninkarrak]] rather than the phonetically similar but more obscure Mesopotamian Ninkar.{{sfn|Westenholz|2010|p=397}} Occasional shortening of Ninkarrak's name to "Ninkar" is known from Mesopotamian sources as well.{{sfn|Westenholz|2010|p=380}} This theory is also accepted by Archi, who notes it makes the widespread worship of Ninkar easier to explain.{{sfn|Archi|2019|p=43}}
[[File:Yazilikaya Sonnengott des Himmels.jpg|thumb|A relief of the Hurrian sun god Shimige (left) in [[Yazılıkaya]].]]
The [[Hurrian religion|Hurrian]] sun god, [[Shimige]], is already represented by the logogram <sup>d</sup>UTU in an inscription of Atalshen, an early king of [[Urkesh]].{{sfn|Archi|2013|pp=6-7}} It is the oldest known reference to him.{{sfn|Giorgieri|2011|p=614}} He is directly equated with Utu in the trilingual Sumero-Hurro-[[Ugaritic]] version of the [[Weidner god list]] from [[Ugarit]].{{sfn|Simons|2017|p=86}} It has been argued that his character was influenced at least in part by his Mesopotamian counterpart.{{sfn|Giorgieri|2011|p=614}}{{sfn|Archi|2013|p=11}} [[Gary Beckman]] goes as far as suggesting that at least in [[Hittite language|Hittite]] texts, he "cannot (yet?) be distinguished sufficiently" from the latter.{{sfn|Beckman|2012|p=131}} Due to this association, Aya was regarded as his spouse in Hurrian tradition, as attested in sources from Hattusa and Ugarit.{{sfn|Giorgieri|2011|p=614}} In the trilingual god list, Bunene (transcribed as ''<sup>d</sup>wu-u-un-ni-nu-wa-an'') appears in association with Shimige.{{sfn|Giorgieri|2011|p=614}} Shimige is additionally equated with [[Lugalbanda]] in it, most likely because the Hurrian pantheon was smaller than that enumerated in Mesopotamian lists, creating the need to have a single Hurrian deity correspond to multiple Mesopotamian ones.{{sfn|Simons|2017|p=86}} The same list also attests the equivalence between Utu, Shimige and the Ugaritic sun goddess [[Šapšu]].{{sfn|Tugendhaft|2016|p=176}} Apparently to avoid the implications that Shapash had a wife, the scribes interpreted the name of Aya, present in the Sumerian original, as an unconventional writing of [[Enki|Ea]].{{sfn|Tugendhaft|2016|p=180}} Instead of the Hurrian spelling of Aya, the name Eyan corresponds to him in the Hurrian column and Ugaritic one lists the local craftsman god [[Kothar-wa-Khasis]].{{sfn|Tugendhaft|2016|p=180}}

The logogram <sup>d</sup>UTU is well attested in Hittite texts.{{sfn|Beckman|2011|p=611}} In addition to Utu himself and his Akkadian counterpart, the deities represented by it were the [[Sun goddess of Arinna]] (<sup>d</sup>UTU ''<sup>uru</sup>Arinna''), the [[Sun goddess of the Earth]] (''taknaš'' <sup>d</sup>UTU), the male [[Sun god of Heaven]] (''nepišaš'' <sup>d</sup>UTU, <sup>d</sup>UTU AN<sup>E</sup>, <sup>d</sup>UTU ŠAME), as well as [[Luwian religion|Luwian]] [[Tiwaz (Luwian deity)|Tiwat]], [[Palaic mythology|Palaic]] [[Tiyaz]] and Hurrian Shimige.{{sfn|Beckman|2011|pp=611-612}} Gary Beckman notes that the Hittite conception of solar deities does not show any [[Indo-European religion|Indo-European]] influence, and instead was largely similar to that known from Mesopotamia.{{sfn|Beckman|2011|p=612}} He points out even the fact that the Sun god of Heaven was believed to travel in a [[quadriga]] drawn by horses, similar to Greek [[Helios]], is not necessarily an example of the former, as deities traveling in chariots are already depicted on Mesopotamian seals from the Sargonic period.{{sfn|Beckman|2012|p=134}}

The logogram <sup>d</sup>UTU also designated the sun deity or deities in [[Emar]] in the late [[Bronze Age]].{{sfn|Beckman|2002|p=49}} According to Gary Beckman, the Mesopotamian, West Semitic, Hurrian and Hittite sun deities might all be potentially represented by it in texts from this city.{{sfn|Beckman|2002|p=49}} Eduardo Torrecilla notes in a more recent publication that the logogram commonly designates Shamash in the middle Euphrates area, and syllabic writings of his name are uncommon there, though he also states that Shimige cannot be ruled out as a possible reading in some cases.{{sfn|Torrecilla|2017|p=11}}

In texts from [[Susa]], [[Haft Tepe]] and [[Malamir (Iranian city)|Malamir]] in [[Elam]] the name of the sun god was usually written logographically as <sup>d</sup>UTU and it is uncertain when it refers to the Mesopotamian deity, and when to local [[Nahhunte]].{{sfn|Stolper|1998|p=83}} It is possible that in legal texts, when <sup>d</sup>UTU occurs next to Elamite deities [[Inshushinak]], [[Ruhurater]] or [[Simut (god)|Simut]], the latter option is correct.{{sfn|Stolper|1998|pp=83-84}} While the god list ''An=Anum'' does mention Nahhunte, he is not explicitly labeled as a counterpart of Utu, and only appears as a member of a group called the "Divine Seven of Elam," associated with the goddess [[Narundi]].{{sfn|Stolper|1998|p=84}} A Mesopotamian commentary on a birth incantation erroneously identifies him as a moon god and Narundi as a sun deity, explaining their names as, respectively, Sin and Shamash.{{sfn|Stolper|1998|p=84}}