Editing Seamount (section)

==Ecology==
===Ecological role of seamounts===
[[File:Diurnal Flow over a Ridge - NOAA-PMEL.gif|thumb|Animations depicting current flow over seamounts and ridges.]]

Seamounts are exceptionally important to their biome ecologically, but their role in their environment is poorly understood. Because they project out above the surrounding sea floor, they disturb standard water flow, causing [[Eddy (fluid dynamics)|eddies]] and associated hydrological phenomena that ultimately result in water movement in an otherwise still ocean bottom. Currents have been measured at up to 0.9&nbsp;knots, or 48&nbsp;centimeters per second. Because of this upwelling seamounts often carry above-average [[plankton]] populations, seamounts are thus centers where the fish that feed on them aggregate, in turn falling prey to further predation, making seamounts important biological hotspots.<ref name=EoE-seamount>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Seamount|url=http://www.eoearth.org/article/Seamount|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia of Earth]]|access-date=24 July 2010|date=December 9, 2008}}</ref>

Seamounts provide habitats and spawning grounds for these larger animals, including numerous fish. Some species, including [[black oreo]] ''(Allocyttus niger)'' and [[blackstripe cardinalfish]] ''(Apogon nigrofasciatus)'', have been shown to occur more often on seamounts than anywhere else on the ocean floor. [[Marine mammal]]s, [[shark]]s, [[tuna]], and [[cephalopod]]s all congregate over seamounts to feed, as well as some species of [[seabird]]s when the features are particularly shallow.<ref name=EoE-seamount/>

[[File:Bubblegum coral on davidson.jpg|thumb|right|[[Grenadier (fish)|Grenadier]] fish (''Coryphaenoides sp.'') and [[Bubblegum Coral|bubblegum coral]] (''Paragorgia arborea'') on the crest of [[Davidson Seamount]]. These are two species attracted to the seamount; ''Paragorgia arborea'' in particular grows in the surrounding area as well, but nowhere near as profusely.<ref name=physorg.com>{{cite web|url=http://www.physorg.com/news153594680.html|title=Seamounts may serve as refuges for deep-sea animals that struggle to survive elsewhere|publisher=[[PhysOrg]]|date=February 11, 2009|access-date=December 7, 2009}}</ref>]]

Seamounts often project upwards into shallower zones more hospitable to sea life, providing [[habitat (ecology)|habitats]] for marine species that are not found on or around the surrounding deeper ocean bottom. Because seamounts are isolated from each other they form "undersea islands" creating the same [[biogeographical]] interest. As they are formed from [[volcanic rock]], the substrate is much harder than the surrounding [[sediment]]ary deep sea floor. This causes a different type of fauna to exist than on the seafloor, and leads to a theoretically higher degree of [[endemism]].<ref name=noaa2006-sheet>{{cite web|url=http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/06davidson/background/conservation/davidson_fact_sheet.pdf|title=Davidson Seamount|year=2006|publisher=[[NOAA]], [[Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary]]|access-date=2 December 2009}}</ref> However, recent research especially centered at [[Davidson Seamount]] suggests that seamounts may not be especially endemic, and discussions are ongoing on the effect of seamounts on endemicity. They ''have'', however, been confidently shown to provide a habitat to species that have difficulty surviving elsewhere.<ref name="PLoS ONE-2009">{{cite journal|author2=Lundsten L. |author3=Ream M., Barry J. |author4=DeVogelaere A.|date=January 7, 2009|title=Endemicity, Biogeography, Composition, and Community Structure On a Northeast Pacific Seamount|journal=[[PLoS ONE]]|volume=4|issue=1|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0004141|last=McClain|first=Craig R.|page=e4141|pmid=19127302|pmc=2613552|editor1-last=Rands|editor1-first=Sean|bibcode = 2009PLoSO...4.4141M |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="DeVogelaere et. al.-2009">{{cite journal|author2=J. P. Barry |author3=G. M. Cailliet |author4=D. A. Clague |author5=A. DeVogelaere |author6=J. B. Geller|date=January 13, 2009|title=Benthic invertebrate communities on three seamounts off southern and central California|journal=[[Marine Ecology Progress Series]]|volume=374|pages=23–32|doi=10.3354/meps07745|last=Lundsten|first=L|bibcode=2009MEPS..374...23L|doi-access=free}}</ref>

The volcanic rocks on the slopes of seamounts are heavily populated by [[suspension feeder]]s, particularly [[coral]]s, which capitalize on the strong currents around the seamount to supply them with food. These coral are therefore host to numerous other organisms in a [[commensal relationship]], for example [[brittle star]]s, who climb the coral to get themselves off the seafloor, helping them to catch food particles, or small zooplankton, as they drift by.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/04mountains/background/commensals/commensals.html | title=NOAA Ocean Explorer: Mountains in the Sea 2004 }}</ref> This is in sharp contrast with the typical deep-sea habitat, where deposit-feeding animals rely on food they get off the ground.<ref name=EoE-seamount/> In [[tropical zone]]s extensive coral growth results in the formation of [[atoll|coral atoll]]s late in the seamount's life.<ref name="DeVogelaere et. al.-2009" /><ref name=oceanography-census />

In addition soft sediments tend to accumulate on seamounts, which are typically populated by [[polychaete]]s ([[annelid]] [[marine worm]]s) [[oligochaete]]s ([[microdrile]] worms), and [[Gastropoda|gastropod mollusks]] ([[sea slug]]s). [[Xenophyophore]]s have also been found. They tend to gather small particulates and thus form beds, which alters sediment deposition and creates a habitat for smaller animals.<ref name=EoE-seamount/> Many seamounts also have [[hydrothermal vent]] communities, for example [[Suiyo Seamount|Suiyo]]<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Higashi|first1=Y|title=Microbial diversity in hydrothermal surface to subsurface environments of Suiyo Seamount, Izu-Bonin Arc, using a catheter-type in situ growth chamber|journal=FEMS Microbiology Ecology|year=2004|volume=47|pmid=19712321|issue=3|pages=327–336|doi=10.1016/S0168-6496(04)00004-2|display-authors=etal|doi-access=free|bibcode=2004FEMME..47..327H}}</ref> and [[Kamaʻehuakanaloa Seamount|Kamaʻehuakanaloa]] seamounts.<ref name=FeMO-Intro>{{cite web |url=http://earthref.org/cgi-bin/er.cgi?s=http://earthref.org/FEMO/loihi.htm |title=Introduction to the Biology and Geology of Lōʻihi Seamount |work= Lōʻihi Seamount |publisher= Fe-Oxidizing Microbial Observatory (FeMO) |date=2009-02-01| access-date=2009-03-02}}</ref> This is helped by geochemical exchange between the seamounts and the ocean water.<ref name=oceanography-geo />

Seamounts may thus be vital stopping points for some [[animal migration|migratory animal]]s, specifically [[whale]]s. Some recent research indicates whales may use such features as navigational aids throughout their migration.<ref name=ask-sem>{{cite web|last=Kennedy|first=Jennifer|title=Seamount: What is a Seamount?|url=http://marinelife.about.com/od/glossary/g/seamountdef.htm|publisher=[[ask.com]]|access-date=25 July 2010|archive-date=7 August 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100807002637/http://marinelife.about.com/od/glossary/g/seamountdef.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> For a long time it has been surmised that many [[Pelagic zone|pelagic animal]]s visit seamounts as well, to gather food, but proof of this aggregating effect has been lacking. The first demonstration of this conjecture was published in 2008.<ref name=marineecoprog>Morato, T., Varkey, D.A., Damaso, C., Machete, M., Santos, M., Prieto, R., Santos, R.S. and Pitcher, T.J. (2008). "Evidence of a seamount effect on aggregating visitors". ''Marine Ecology Progress'' Series 357: pages 23–32.</ref>

===Fishing===
The effect that seamounts have on fish populations has not gone unnoticed by the [[Commercial fishing|commercial fishing industry]]. Seamounts were first extensively fished in the second half of the 20th century, due to poor management practices and increased fishing pressure seriously depleting stock numbers on the typical fishing ground, the [[continental shelf]]. Seamounts have been the site of targeted fishing since that time.<ref name=ices>{{cite web|title=Seamounts – hotspots of marine life|url=http://www.ices.dk/marineworld/seamounts.asp|publisher=[[International Council for the Exploration of the Sea]]|access-date=24 July 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100413164705/http://www.ices.dk/marineworld/seamounts.asp|archive-date=13 April 2010}}</ref>

Nearly 80 species of fish and shellfish are commercially harvested from seamounts, including [[spiny lobster]] (Palinuridae), [[mackerel]] (Scombridae and others), [[Paralithodes camtschaticus|red king crab]] (''Paralithodes camtschaticus''), [[Lutjanus campechanus|red snapper]] (''Lutjanus campechanus''), [[tuna]] (Scombridae), [[Orange roughy]] (''Hoplostethus atlanticus''), and [[perch]] (Percidae).<ref name=EoE-seamount/>

===Conservation===
[[File:Orange roughy.png|thumb|right|Because of overfishing at their seamount spawning grounds, stocks of [[orange roughy]] (''Hoplostethus atlanticus'') have plummeted; experts say that it could take decades for the species to restore itself to its former numbers.<ref name=ices/>]]

The ecological conservation of seamounts is hurt by the simple lack of information available. Seamounts are very poorly studied, with only 350 of the estimated 100,000 seamounts in the world having received sampling, and fewer than 100 in depth.<ref name=censeam-overview/> Much of this lack of information can be attributed to a lack of technology,{{Clarify|date=February 2014}} and to the daunting task of reaching these underwater structures; the technology to fully explore them has only been around the last few decades. Before consistent conservation efforts can begin, the seamounts of the world must first be [[Bathymetry|mapped]], a task that is still in progress.<ref name=EoE-seamount/>

Overfishing is a serious threat to seamount ecological welfare. There are several well-documented cases of fishery exploitation, for example the [[orange roughy]] (''Hoplostethus atlanticus'') off the coasts of Australia and New Zealand and the [[pelagic armorhead]] (''Pseudopentaceros richardsoni'') near Japan and Russia.<ref name=EoE-seamount/> The reason for this is that the fishes that are targeted over seamounts are typically long-lived, slow-growing, and slow-maturing. The problem is confounded by the dangers of [[trawling]], which damages seamount surface communities, and the fact that many seamounts are located in international waters, making proper monitoring difficult.<ref name=ices/> [[Bottom trawling]] in particular is extremely devastating to seamount ecology, and is responsible for as much as 95% of ecological damage to seamounts.<ref>Report of the [[Secretary-General of the United Nations|Secretary-General]] (2006) [https://www.un.org/Depts/los/general_assembly/documents/impact_of_fishing.pdf ''The Impacts of Fishing on Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems''] [[United Nations]]. 14 July 2006. Retrieved on 26 July 2010.</ref>

[[File:Koral1.jpg|thumb|left|[[Coral (precious)|Coral]] [[earrings]] of this type are often made from coral harvested off seamounts.]]

[[Coral]]s from seamounts are also vulnerable, as they are highly valued for making jewellery and decorative objects. Significant harvests have been produced from seamounts, often leaving coral beds depleted.<ref name=EoE-seamount/>

Individual nations are beginning to note the effect of fishing on seamounts, and the [[European Commission]] has agreed to fund the OASIS project, a detailed study of the effects of fishing on seamount communities in the [[North Atlantic]].<ref name=ices/> Another project working towards conservation is [[CenSeam]], a [[Census of Marine Life]] project formed in 2005. CenSeam is intended to provide the framework needed to prioritise, integrate, expand and facilitate seamount research efforts in order to significantly reduce the unknown and build towards a global understanding of seamount ecosystems, and the roles they have in the [[biogeography]], [[biodiversity]], [[Productivity (ecology)|productivity]] and [[evolution]] of marine organisms.<ref name=censeam-overview>{{cite web|title=CenSeam Mission|url=http://censeam.niwa.co.nz/censeam_about|publisher=CenSeam|access-date=22 July 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100524081850/http://censeam.niwa.co.nz/censeam_about <!--Added by H3llBot-->|archive-date=24 May 2010}}</ref><ref name="censeam-science">{{cite web|title=CenSeam Science|url=http://censeam.niwa.co.nz/science|publisher=CenSeam|access-date=22 July 2010}}</ref>

Possibly the best ecologically studied seamount in the world is [[Davidson Seamount]], with six major expeditions recording over 60,000 species observations. The contrast between the seamount and the surrounding area was well-marked.<ref name="PLoS ONE-2009"/> One of the primary ecological havens on the seamount is its [[Deep water coral|deep sea coral]] garden, and many of the specimens noted were over a century old.<ref name=physorg.com/> Following the expansion of knowledge on the seamount there was extensive support to make it a [[Marine Protected Area|marine sanctuary]], a motion that was granted in 2008 as part of the [[Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary]].<ref name=noaa-pressrelease>{{cite web|url=http://cordellbank.noaa.gov/management/jmprpressrelease.pdf|title=NOAA Releases Plans for Managing and Protecting Cordell Bank, Gulf of Farallones and Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuaries|date=November 20, 2008|work=Press release|publisher=[[NOAA]]|access-date=2 December 2009}}{{dead link|date=December 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}}</ref> Much of what is known about seamounts ecologically is based on observations from Davidson.<ref name=physorg.com/><ref name=marineecoprog/> Another such seamount is [[Bowie Seamount]], which has also been declared a marine protected area by Canada for its ecological richness.<ref name=ZO>{{cite web | title = Bowie Seamount Marine Protected Area | publisher = [[Fisheries and Oceans Canada]] |date=1 October 2011 | url = http://www.pac.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/oceans/protection/mpa-zpm/bowie/index-eng.htm |access-date=31 December 2011}}</ref>